Table 10.1 Typology of policy
Type of instrument
Legislative and regulatory
Economic and fiscal
Agreement- and incentive-based
Information- and communication-based
De facto and de jure standards/Best practices
Type of political relations
Social guardian state
Redistributive state Mobilizing state Audience democracy Competitive mechanisms
Type of legitimacy
Imposition of general interest by mandated elected representatives
Socioeconomic efficiency
Seel direct involvement
Explain decisions/accountability
Mixed: scientific/technical and/or pressure of market mechanisms
difficult to control, thus fuelling a dynamic of institutionalization. The instruments partly determine what resources can be used and by whom. Like any institution, instruments allow forms of collective action to stabilize, and make the actor’s behaviour more predict- able and probably more visible. From this angle, instrumentation is really a political issue, since the choice of instrument – which, moreover, may form the object of political conflicts – will partly structure the process and its results. Taking an interest in instru- ments must not in any way justify the erasure of the political. On the contrary, the more public policy is defined through its instru- ments, the more the issues of instrumentation risk raising conflicts between different actors, interests and organizations. The most power- ful actors will be induced to support the adoption of certain instruments rather than others.
Finally, working from Hood’s classic work (1986), Lascoumes and Le Galès (2004) have suggested a typology of policy instruments (Table 10.1).
Classic instruments are taxes and laws and relate more clearly to the classic conception of representative democracy. By contrast, the three last categories of instrument in Table 10.1 represent what is commonly associated with the rise of ‘new’ policy instruments. They have in common the fact that they offer less interventionist forms of public regula- tion, taking into account the recurrent criti- cisms directed at instruments of the ‘command and control’ type. In this sense, they lend themselves to organizing a different kind of
political relations, based on communication and consultation, and they help to renew the foundations of legitimacy.
Agreement- and incentive-based instruments
This mode of intervention, often linked to charters, partnership or contracts has become generalized in a context strongly critical of bureaucracy – because of its cumbersome, yet abstract nature, and the way it reduces accountability. In societies with growing mobility, motivated by sectors and subsectors in search of permanent normative autonomy, only participatory instruments are supposed to be able to provide adequate modes of regu- lation. A framework of agreements, with the incentive forms linked to it, presupposes a state in retreat from its traditional functions, renouncing its power of constraint and becoming involved in modes of ostensibly contractual exchange, mobilizing and enroll- ing resources and actors. The central ques- tions of autonomy of wills, of reciprocity of benefits, and of sanction for non-observance of undertakings are rarely taken into account.
Information- and communication-based instruments
These instruments form part of the develop- ment of what is generally called ‘audience democracy’ or ‘democracy of opinion’ – that is, a relatively autonomous public space in the political sphere traditionally based on repre- sentation. The growing use of information and communication instruments that corre- spond to situations in which information or
Table 10.1 Typology of policy
Type of instrument
Legislative and regulatory
Economic and fiscal
Agreement- and incentive-based
Information- and communication-based
De facto and de jure standards/Best practices
Type of political relations
Social guardian state
Redistributive state Mobilizing state Audience democracy Competitive mechanisms
Type of legitimacy
Imposition of general interest by mandated elected representatives
Socioeconomic efficiency
Seel direct involvement
Explain decisions/accountability
Mixed: scientific/technical and/or pressure of market mechanisms
difficult to control, thus fuelling a dynamic of institutionalization. The instruments partly determine what resources can be used and by whom. Like any institution, instruments allow forms of collective action to stabilize, and make the actor’s behaviour more predict- able and probably more visible. From this angle, instrumentation is really a political issue, since the choice of instrument – which, moreover, may form the object of political conflicts – will partly structure the process and its results. Taking an interest in instru- ments must not in any way justify the erasure of the political. On the contrary, the more public policy is defined through its instru- ments, the more the issues of instrumentation risk raising conflicts between different actors, interests and organizations. The most power- ful actors will be induced to support the adoption of certain instruments rather than others.
Finally, working from Hood’s classic work (1986), Lascoumes and Le Galès (2004) have suggested a typology of policy instruments (Table 10.1).
Classic instruments are taxes and laws and relate more clearly to the classic conception of representative democracy. By contrast, the three last categories of instrument in Table 10.1 represent what is commonly associated with the rise of ‘new’ policy instruments. They have in common the fact that they offer less interventionist forms of public regula- tion, taking into account the recurrent criti- cisms directed at instruments of the ‘command and control’ type. In this sense, they lend themselves to organizing a different kind of
political relations, based on communication and consultation, and they help to renew the foundations of legitimacy.
Agreement- and incentive-based instruments
This mode of intervention, often linked to charters, partnership or contracts has become generalized in a context strongly critical of bureaucracy – because of its cumbersome, yet abstract nature, and the way it reduces accountability. In societies with growing mobility, motivated by sectors and subsectors in search of permanent normative autonomy, only participatory instruments are supposed to be able to provide adequate modes of regu- lation. A framework of agreements, with the incentive forms linked to it, presupposes a state in retreat from its traditional functions, renouncing its power of constraint and becoming involved in modes of ostensibly contractual exchange, mobilizing and enroll- ing resources and actors. The central ques- tions of autonomy of wills, of reciprocity of benefits, and of sanction for non-observance of undertakings are rarely taken into account.
Information- and communication-based instruments
These instruments form part of the develop- ment of what is generally called ‘audience democracy’ or ‘democracy of opinion’ – that is, a relatively autonomous public space in the political sphere traditionally based on repre- sentation. The growing use of information and communication instruments that corre- spond to situations in which information or
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