Notes to the Instructor: This experiment is suitable for an advanced project in the full year organic laboratory or as a project in an upper level organic course. Calculations described herein were performed using Chem CAChe. SELECTED RESULTS may be provided to students for guidance in performing their calculations. The Complete Data are available for comparison, and a separate page provides a Discussion of the complete results.
Introduction
Electrophilic aromatic substitution represents an important class of reactions in organic synthesis and is arguably the most critical transformation of arenes. The nitration of benzene and its derivatives has been extensively investigated. Nitration of toluene proceeds with predominant formation of the ortho isomer1 for which the results of Brown and Nelson2 are representative. (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 Nitration of toluene
The distribution of isomers does not appear to be altered significantly by changes in concentration of the nitrating agent2 but variation in reaction conditions can have a marked effect on product ratios3. Reported yields for the ortho isomer have ranged from 59 % (HNO3 in acetic anhydride4) to 69% (NO2+PF6- in nitromethane5). [The numbering scheme used on the benzene skeleton is referenced according to the carbon numbers assigned when the structure was drawn in the Editor of Chem CAChe.] This reaction is generally believed to proceed6 via an SEAr mechanism (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 General Scheme for the SEAr Reaction
You have learned that ortho and para attack of the nitronium ion is favored due to stabilization of specific ortho and para resonance structures via an electron-donating inductive effect of the methyl group. The regioselectivity of the final product distribution should reflect the relative stabilities of the corresponding arenium ions in accord with the Hammond postulate8.
Energy calculations for the starting material, intermediate arenium ions, and products in the nitration of toluene can be compared with the experimental data. Heats of reaction are easily inferred from these data.
ChemCAChe, and Project Leader also permit calculation of electrophilic and nucleophilic susceptibility9 for the ring carbons of toluene and the arenium ions. The electrophilic frontier density is a measure of the susceptibility of the substrate to attack by an electrophile. Electrophilic frontier density reveals reactive sites based on the electron distribution of active orbitals near the HOMO. On the other hand, the nucleophilic frontier density is a measure of the susceptibility of the substrate to attack by a nucleophile. This parameter reveals reactive sites based on the electron distribution of active orbitals near the LUMO.
Nucleophilic susceptibility may be applied to the arenium ions generated from ortho, meta or para attack of toluene by the nitronium ion. While the arenium ions are not attacked by a nucleophile per se, charge distribution might be inferred from the resultant data. Values for carbons bearing a positive charge, through resonance, indicate the degree of positive charge with the larger number reflecting a greater charge.
Finally, electron isodensity surfaces may be calculated for toluene and the various arenium ions to visually determine the most likely site for electrophilic attack on toluene and the most likely site for nucleophilic attack (i.e., the most electron deficient region) on a given arenium ion.
Objectives of this Experiment
Calculate:
energies (steric, total, heat of formation) for the starting material, intermediate arenium ions, and products in the nitration of toluene.
heats of reaction for starting materials to the intermediate arenium ions as well from the starting materials to the products.
the electrophilic susceptibility for each ring carbon of toluene.
the nucleophilic susceptibility of carbons possessing a positive charge through resonance for each of the intermediate arenium ions.
Generate:
an electrophilic isodensity surface for toluene.
a nucleophilic isodensity surface for each of the arenium ions.
Correlate all of these findings with the observed product ratios to assess the degree of agreement to experiment.
Examine the data to see if they account for the lower than statistically expected degree of ortho product.
Ascertain whether it can be determined if nitration, under these conditions, is governed by kinetic or thermodynamic control and whether or not the results are in agreement with the Hammond postulate.
Experimental