Jensen and Meckling (1976) suggest that auditing is an important means of mitigating agency conflicts between managers and outside shareholders. Auditing is a monitoring device for the shareholders because auditors would report detected material misstatements in audited financial statements. In short, auditing is also a bonding device of the managers who engage auditors to signal to the shareholders that they will not behave opportunistically.
Zang (2007), Roychowdhury (2006) and Cohen and Zarowin (2010) discuss and document that managers exercise their discretion not only via choice of accounting estimate and methods (accrual-based earnings management) but also through operational decisions (real activities manipulation). Real activities manipulation is an alternative tool of earnings management through changing operating activities and decisions (opportunistic reduction of discretionary expenses, overproduction, and offering price discounts to boost current-period sales). Separately, Graham et al. (2005) suggest that given the stigma associated with accrual management, earnings manipulations are now more likely to be achieved through real economic actions. First, accrual-based earnings management is more likely to draw auditor or regulatory scrutiny than real decisions, such as those related to product pricing, production,