innovations that are inconsistent with consumers' social
values and behavior patterns are often hard to sell.3
In addition to "direct advertising" via publication
in journals, books, and proceedings, a theory can also
be promoted through publicity and personal selling.
Publicity for a theory includes notices of forthcoming
articles in journals, abstracts of published articles
printed in other journals, and notices of working papers
in association newsletters. Occasionally, a scientist/
marketer can get other scientists to cite the new
theory, perhaps while still in working paper form.
Scientists may be able to generate discussion of their
theory in nonscholarly publications such as Marketing
News or Psychology Today. Finally, if dissertation research
testing the theory wins awards or other recognition,
the resulting publicity can be very helpful
in the overall marketing effort. Publicity may perform
a useful informational or reminder role, but is likely
to be less persuasive than other forms of promotion.
However, a "bandwagon effect" for a theory might
be enhanced through this kind of promotion.
Personal selling is an important element of the
promotional strategy for theories. Personal selling occurs
during formal or informal presentations of the
theory as well as in direct one-on-one discussions with
potential adopters. Moreover, salesmanship is an important
aspect of dealing with editors and reviewers
in the revision process. Direct selling can be an effective
method of persuasion since the scientist/marketer
can address counter-arguments of the potential
buyer head on and can offer ad hoc hypotheses to cover
many of the perceived weaknesses in the theory. Finally,
a personal selling strategy can be particularly
effective with one's doctoral students.
Price of Theories
The scientist who adopts a new theory must pay a
price that involves time and money as well as psychological
and behavioral costs. Part of the price of
adopting a new theory involves the time spent learning
the new theory and its methods, as well as the
associated opportunity costs. The adopter of a new
theory may also incur financial costs in purchasing
new equipment (e.g., a physiology lab) or in education/
training costs (e.g., attending seminars on causal
modeling). Other costs include the psychological effort