writings on public administration go back to ancient civilization.The ancient Egyptians
and Babylonians left considerable advice on the techniques of management and adminis-tration. So did the civilizations of China, Greece, and Rome. Modern management tech-niques can be traced from Alexander the Great’s use of staff to the assembly-line methods of the
arsenal of Venice from the theorizing of Niccolo Machiavelli on the nature of leadership to Adam
Smith’s advocacy of the division of labor;and from Robert Owen’s assertion that “vital machines”
(employees) should be given as much attention as “inanimate machines” to Charles Babbage’s con-tention that there existed “basic principles of management