At curriculum level 1, case studies of revolutionary scientific thinking, such as Darwin's theory of evolution and Einstein's relativity theory, and of major technological inventions such as the steam engine, the internal combustion engine, the printing press, and the computer, can be used to show that scientific and technological developments are both culturally dependent and culturally transforming and to foster awareness that science and technology are powerful forces that shape the lives of people and other species and impact significantly on the environment as a whole. They arise directly from the social milieu, from the problems we encounter, the needs and interests we develop, and the questions we ask. In turn, the products of our scientific and technological endeavors impact very directly and profoundly on the social, cultural, and economic fabric of society, including the language in which we express our thoughts and the ways in which we conduct our daily lives. In other words, science, technology, and what some have called technoscience are products of their time and place and can sometimes change quite radically the ways in which people talk, think, and act. For example, the science of Galileo, Newton, Darwin, and Einstein changed our perceptions of humanity's place in the universe and precipitated enormous changes in the way people address many of the issues encountered in daily life. Recent developments in gene therapy and gene manipulation have thrown into question our conception of life and death, our view of what is natural or artificial, and our sense of personal identity; presented us with profound moral–ethical problems; and posed some major challenges to our concepts of freedom, equality, and democracy. The steam engine, internal combustion engine, printing press, and computer precipitated far-reaching social and economic changes that impacted the lives of almost everyone on the planet. This level 1 awareness also includes recognition that large-scale technological innovation is a complex, far-reaching, and not entirely predictable activity. It can result in unexpected benefits, unanticipated costs, and unforeseen risks. The benefits of scientific and technological innovations are often accompanied by problems: hazards to human health, challenging and sometimes disconcerting social changes, environmental degradation, major moral–ethical dilemmas, and sometimes restriction rather than enhancement of individual freedom and choice.
Much of STS, STSE, and environmental education, though recognizing these adverse features of development, is currently pitched at the level where decision making is seen simply as a matter of reaching consensus or effecting a compromise among competing interests (what Levinson [2010] called the “dialogic/deliberative” approach to citizenship education). In contrast, the intention at level 2 is to enable students to recognize that decisions about scientific research and technological developments are taken in pursuit of particular interests, justified by particular values and sometimes implemented by those with sufficient economic or political power to override the needs and interests of others. As a consequence, the advantages and disadvantages of these developments often impact differentially. What benefits some may harm others. Case studies can be used to achieve a level of critical scientific literacy that recognizes how science and technology serve the rich and the powerful in ways that are often prejudicial to the interests and well-being of the poor and powerless, sometimes giving rise to further inequalities and injustices. Such studies help students to see that material benefits in the West (North) are often achieved at the expense of those living in the developing world. It is here that the radical political character of the curriculum begins to emerge. The intention is that students will recognize that critical consideration of scientific and technological development is inextricably linked with questions about the distribution of wealth and power and that problems of environmental degradation are rooted in societal practices and the values and interests that sustain and legitimate them. Further, most environmental problems can be interpreted as social justice issues, with race/ethnicity, gender, and class often being the major factors determining who controls and benefits from the businesses and institutions that cause environmental degradation and who experiences the adverse impact. Indeed, it could be argued that the frequency with which environmental degradation impacts the poor, the disadvantaged, the marginalized, and the powerless much more than the rich and powerful warrants use of the term environmental racism.