4. Adopting this perspective, we will generally refer to processes rather than to populations, to signals or central tendencies of processes rather than to population parameters, and to
estimates of signals rather than to sample statistics. We use the term process to refer both to processes that remain relatively stable over time as well as to stochastic processes, which can change quickly over time.
5. However, Frick (1998) argues that the difference between processes and populations is more than terminology, claiming that the tension between theoretical descriptions of random sampling and what we actually do in practice could be resolved if we thought explicitly of sampling from processes rather than from populations.
6. The maximum score on the reading component was 500, and the standard deviation was 50.
7. See Bakker (2001) for a review of the historical origins of various types of averages and a discussion of parallels between these ideas and the development of student thinking.
4. Adopting this perspective, we will generally refer to processes rather than to populations, to signals or central tendencies of processes rather than to population parameters, and to
estimates of signals rather than to sample statistics. We use the term process to refer both to processes that remain relatively stable over time as well as to stochastic processes, which can change quickly over time.
5. However, Frick (1998) argues that the difference between processes and populations is more than terminology, claiming that the tension between theoretical descriptions of random sampling and what we actually do in practice could be resolved if we thought explicitly of sampling from processes rather than from populations.
6. The maximum score on the reading component was 500, and the standard deviation was 50.
7. See Bakker (2001) for a review of the historical origins of various types of averages and a discussion of parallels between these ideas and the development of student thinking.
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