where TA is total accruals, defined as net income before extraordinary items (Compustat #123) minus cash flow from operations (Compustat #308) scaled by beginning of fiscal year total assets (Compustat #6); DREV is the change in sales (Compustat #12) from year t 2 1 to year t, scaled by beginning of fiscal year total assets; DREC is change in accounts receivable (Compustat #302) from year t 2 1 to year t, scaled by beginning of fiscal year total assets; PPE is gross property, plant and equipment (Compustat #7) scaled by beginning of fiscal year total assets; BM is the book value (Compustat #60) to market value of common equity (Compustat #25£#199) for the year; and OCF are current operating cash flows (Compustat #308), scaled by beginning of fiscal year total assets.