Known poetically as the ‘Land of a Thousand Hills’ due to its relief, Rwanda is a tiny, landlocked republic lying south of the equator in East-Central Africa (World Bank 2004:20) and lies between (roughly) 1oS and 3oS, and 29oE and 31oE (Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook 2002:356). The country is bounded by Lake Kivu and the Rusizi River on the west; on the south by the Ruhwa and Akanyaru Rivers; on the east by the Akagera River; and on the northwest by a chain of volcanoes. Rwanda’s neighbours are Uganda to the north, Burundi to the south, Tanzania to the east and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west and northwest (MINECOFIN 2002:344). It had a population size of 9,6 million in 2008 (PRB 2009:4). The land area is 26 338 square kilometres (World Bank 2004:20) with a high population density of 365 per square kilometre (PRB 2009:4). It is one of the most densely populated countries on the African continent with population pressure on scarce land threatening the physical environment and the social harmony in the country (World Bank 2004:20).
In the last decade of the 20th century almost every Rwandan household was affected by at least one of the following: economic crises, civil war, internal displacement, mass emigration, political transition, returning refugees, destruction of natural resources and most importantly the genocide (Verwimp and Baval 2005:272). Moreover, the environmental degradation caused by the massive population displacements caused vast economic losses to the country. The government made serious efforts to resettle people by making more land available. However, this resulted in biodiversity and natural resources being destroyed. Forests and woodlands came under strain as is evidenced by the reduction in area of the Nyungwe and Akagera National Forests after the genocide (REMA 2009:86–87). According to Gahima (2007:4), although there has been a proliferation of research on Rwanda by scholars who go beyond simply describing the political and historical causes of the genocide as a result of the hatred between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups, there have been few attempts to assess the voices of people and leaders on the environmental impacts of the genocide in their daily lives (Gahima 2007). It is also clear that environmental impacts cannot be discussed in isolation from the socio-economic and political dynamics in the country and the backdrop of the genocide itself. This article will attempt to fill this gap, using primary and secondary information sources to satisfy the following objectives: (1) to provide a conceptual basis by discussing genocides and conflicts; and (2) to evaluate the environmental impacts of the genocide. Empirical data were obtained from two case studies from a larger study that focused on the social and environmental impacts of the genocide. The case studies are from different historical and geographic areas, the semi- urban towns of Butare and Cyangugu in Rwanda. Butare was chosen due to the large number of people killed (100 000 according to Melvern 2000:171), and Cyangugu because it was an environment that was most affected by the genocide. In this area destruction lasted longer than in other parts of the country, and there was a massive return of refugees and the emergence of grouped settlements (Imidugudu) established by the state (Ministry of Infrastructures 2004:23).
In both areas, a representative sample of 100 residents was drawn from the population by using multistage sampling techniques. Stratified random sampling was the most appropriate technique. Within each town, a stratified sample of two subgroups was selected according to location and socio-economic status. One subgroup was comprised of high-income residents, living in a suburban area and the other subgroup was from a semi-urban area with low-income residents, living in modest housing. Within these two subgroups, two cells were selected randomly. From each cell a random sample of 25 households was chosen. In total, there were four cells chosen which made up the 100 residents for the study. Community leaders, one from each of the four cells, were purposively selected and semi-structured questionnaires were used in these interviews. The questionnaire at the household level focused on attitudes, perceptions and experiences on issues pertaining to their lives including the environment before and after the genocide, whilst that for the leaders was based on infrastructure and environmental management in their administrative units after the genocide.
To better understand the environmental causes and impacts of the genocide and to determine the contextual basis of the discussion that follows, a brief overview of genocides and conflicts will be discussed. The next section will discuss environmental issues based on primary data from the survey and secondary sources. However, due to the multiple aspects comprising the environment, the focus in this article has been narrowed down to a few key dimensions that had significant impacts on the environment – destruction of biodiversity, deforestation, farming and agricultural activities, housing and the construction of new facilities, fuel and energy sources and the spread of malaria due to deforestation.