Aerosol Composition Measurements
Until recently, aerosol composition measurement required relatively large sample sizes to permit analysis, which were acquired using high-volume samples (known as Hi-Vols), and were analyzed off-line by using techniques such as colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and organic/elemental carbon analysis. Recently, on-line techniques have allowed the real time measurement of the average, and single-particle, aerosol composition through coupling of aerosol sampling stages to mass spectrometers. Aerosol mass spectrometers (AMS) sample ambient particles onto a heated surface, which volatilizes the aerosol; the constituent gases are ionized, and the ionic chemical composition is assessed through either a quadrupole or time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The characteristic chemical signatures can then be used to distinguish between different primary and secondary source contributions to the ambient aerosol population. The complementary aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer (ATOFMS) measures the composition of individual aerosol particles through UV laser volatilization and ionization, followed by time-of-flight mass spectrometry. These instruments are more commonly used within the atmospheric research communities.
Long-Term Monitoring of Global Pollutants
An alternative class of pollutants of considerable current interest are the long-lived globally mixed gases principally responsible for climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion: long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) fall into the former category, whereas chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) make up the latter (although most CFCs/HCFCs are also potent greenhouse gases on a molecule-for-molecule basis). These species are measured at a number of global monitoring stations, which operate under the authority of international programs such as the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) project, the World Meteorological Organization's Global Atmospheric Watch program, and various other national programs. A number of manned/semiautonomous stations make measurements of these gases in situ, and flask samples are also collected at other stations and returned to base laboratories for periodic analysis -- an approach only possible for the nonreactive, long-lived species under consideration.
CFC and HCFC species are measured using GC, following a drying stage. The GC analysis separates in dividual species, based on their retention times while flowing through the column, followed by detection by electron capture detector (ECD) for the halogenated gases, and FID for methane. Carbon dioxide is measured by nondispersive IR absorption spectroscopy, with the attenuation of filtered 4.25 um IR radiation by CO2 in the ambient airstream determined relative to that from a (known) concentration of CO2 in a reference cell. For all such measurements of trends in long-lived gases over timescales of decades and longer, quality control, and in particular, the repeatable analysis of traceable standard mixtures to validate the ambient measurements, is of paramount importance. The calibration and validation process for the measurements, involving generations of traceable primary and daughter standard mixtures, is commonly far more demanding than acquisition of the atmospheric signal.
Summary
Measurements of air pollutants are required to advise populations of current air quality levels and any specific hazardous conditions, assess compliance with regulatory controls, and monitor the changing atmospheric environment. Most pollutants are present at low levels within a complex matrix (ambient air); therefore sophisticated instrumentation, commonly targeted toward a specific species or group of species, has been developed to measure atmospheric pollution depending on the specific physicochemical properties of the pollutant in question. Common techniques incorporated in automatic monitors deployed at specific locations or monitoring stations include short-path absorption spectroscopy i the UV (ozone) and IR (sulfur dioxide), chemiluminescence (nitrogen oxides), fluorescence (carbon monoxide), whereas semiautonomous monitoring for VOCs may be conducted by GC. For PM, aerosol, recently developed instrumentation permits automated near-real time monitoring of ambient levels without recourse to time-integrated filter sampling and weighing procedures. The methods described are reliable under most ambient atmospheric conditions, and have been accepted as reference techniques for the various pollutant species, but they all have limitations, for example, detection limit
ประเมินองค์ประกอบของขวด จนล่าสุด ขวดวัดองค์ประกอบจำเป็นต้องใช้ขนาดตัวอย่างที่ค่อนข้างใหญ่เพื่ออนุญาตให้มีการวิเคราะห์ ซึ่งได้มาโดยใช้ตัวอย่างปริมาณสูง (เรียกว่า Hi Vols), และได้วิเคราะห์ off-line โดยใช้เทคนิคเช่น colorimetry กการดูดกลืนโดยอะตอม และคาร์บอนอินทรีย์/ธาตุวิเคราะห์ ล่าสุด เทคนิคง่ายดายได้รับอนุญาตให้วัดเวลาจริงองค์ประกอบเฉลี่ย และ อนุภาคเดี่ยว สเปรย์ผ่านคลัปขวดสุ่มตัวอย่างขั้นตอนการตรวจโดยรวม สเปรย์ตรวจมวล (AMS) ตัวอย่างอนุภาคที่แวดล้อมไปอุ่นพื้นผิว ที่ volatilizes รับ ก๊าซธาตุถูก ionized และมีประเมินองค์ประกอบเคมี ionic ผ่าน quadrupole หรือเวลาของเที่ยวบินโดยรวมสเปกโตรมิเตอร์ แล้วใช้ลายเซ็นลักษณะทางเคมีเพื่อแยกระหว่างสรรมาหลัก และรองรับสภาวะประชากร ขวดสเปรย์เสริมเวลาของบินโดยรวมสเปกโตรมิเตอร์ (ATOFMS) วัดองค์ประกอบของอนุภาคแต่ละ volatilization เลเซอร์รังสียูวีและ ionization ตามเวลาของเที่ยวบินโตรเมทรี มากกว่าปกติใช้เครื่องมือเหล่านี้ในชุมชนวิจัยบรรยากาศตรวจสอบระยะยาวของสารมลพิษส่วนกลาง An alternative class of pollutants of considerable current interest are the long-lived globally mixed gases principally responsible for climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion: long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) fall into the former category, whereas chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) make up the latter (although most CFCs/HCFCs are also potent greenhouse gases on a molecule-for-molecule basis). These species are measured at a number of global monitoring stations, which operate under the authority of international programs such as the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) project, the World Meteorological Organization's Global Atmospheric Watch program, and various other national programs. A number of manned/semiautonomous stations make measurements of these gases in situ, and flask samples are also collected at other stations and returned to base laboratories for periodic analysis -- an approach only possible for the nonreactive, long-lived species under consideration.CFC and HCFC species are measured using GC, following a drying stage. The GC analysis separates in dividual species, based on their retention times while flowing through the column, followed by detection by electron capture detector (ECD) for the halogenated gases, and FID for methane. Carbon dioxide is measured by nondispersive IR absorption spectroscopy, with the attenuation of filtered 4.25 um IR radiation by CO2 in the ambient airstream determined relative to that from a (known) concentration of CO2 in a reference cell. For all such measurements of trends in long-lived gases over timescales of decades and longer, quality control, and in particular, the repeatable analysis of traceable standard mixtures to validate the ambient measurements, is of paramount importance. The calibration and validation process for the measurements, involving generations of traceable primary and daughter standard mixtures, is commonly far more demanding than acquisition of the atmospheric signal.Summary Measurements of air pollutants are required to advise populations of current air quality levels and any specific hazardous conditions, assess compliance with regulatory controls, and monitor the changing atmospheric environment. Most pollutants are present at low levels within a complex matrix (ambient air); therefore sophisticated instrumentation, commonly targeted toward a specific species or group of species, has been developed to measure atmospheric pollution depending on the specific physicochemical properties of the pollutant in question. Common techniques incorporated in automatic monitors deployed at specific locations or monitoring stations include short-path absorption spectroscopy i the UV (ozone) and IR (sulfur dioxide), chemiluminescence (nitrogen oxides), fluorescence (carbon monoxide), whereas semiautonomous monitoring for VOCs may be conducted by GC. For PM, aerosol, recently developed instrumentation permits automated near-real time monitoring of ambient levels without recourse to time-integrated filter sampling and weighing procedures. The methods described are reliable under most ambient atmospheric conditions, and have been accepted as reference techniques for the various pollutant species, but they all have limitations, for example, detection limit
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