The pooled cross-sectional distribution approach employed here could be
adapted to detect earnings management in other settings. For example, consider the case of earnings management to meet earlier managerial forecasts of earnings (Kasznik, 1996). If earnings are not managed to meet forecasts, we would expect to observe a relatively smooth cross-sectional distribution of deviations of realized earnings from forecasts. In contrast, if earnings are managed to meet forecast goals, we would expect to observe a sharp discontinuity in the vicinity of zero, i.e. a significantly lower concentration of (small) negative deviations of reported earnings from forecasts and a significantly higher concentration of (small) positive deviations. An important determinant of the effectiveness of the pooled cross-sectional distribution approach in other earnings management settings will be the precision with which the earnings management goal can be defined. The simple goals considered in this paper, avoidance of earnings decreases and losses, have the advantage of being sharply and unambiguously defined. However, the usefulness of this approach in settings with less sharply defined goals is an empirical issue.
The pooled cross-sectional distribution approach employed here could be
adapted to detect earnings management in other settings. For example, consider the case of earnings management to meet earlier managerial forecasts of earnings (Kasznik, 1996). If earnings are not managed to meet forecasts, we would expect to observe a relatively smooth cross-sectional distribution of deviations of realized earnings from forecasts. In contrast, if earnings are managed to meet forecast goals, we would expect to observe a sharp discontinuity in the vicinity of zero, i.e. a significantly lower concentration of (small) negative deviations of reported earnings from forecasts and a significantly higher concentration of (small) positive deviations. An important determinant of the effectiveness of the pooled cross-sectional distribution approach in other earnings management settings will be the precision with which the earnings management goal can be defined. The simple goals considered in this paper, avoidance of earnings decreases and losses, have the advantage of being sharply and unambiguously defined. However, the usefulness of this approach in settings with less sharply defined goals is an empirical issue.
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