Initially, Manz and Sims (1981) considered self-management to be synonymous
with leadership (p. 362). Self-management and leadership involved a form of self-control
in which the individual managed his or her behavior (p. 362). Manz and Sims proposed
self-management as an essential element of self-efficacy and social learning theory
(Bandura, 1977, p. 212) of which they prescribed specific techniques. Manz and Sims
(1981) described these techniques, explaining that "self-observation, goal specification,
cueing strategies, incentive modification, and rehearsal can be used to exercise selfmanagement
behavior" (p. 361). Manz and Sims (1986) later developed self-leadership as
a subcategory of self-management in which they saw the practitioners of self-control
techniques as self-leaders (Houghton and Neck, 2006, p. 280).