intermediate for protein biotinylation and corepressor for tran-
scriptional regulation. The BirA: biotinyl-5′-AMP (holo) enzyme can
then adopt one of two different fates. When the cellular demand
for biotin is low holo BirA can dimerize and bind DNA where it func-
tions as the transcriptional repressor of the biotin biosynthesis
operon, thereby inhibiting the synthesis of more biotin. In con-
trast, in the presence of substrate requiring biotinylation the holo
BirA functions as a biotin ligase. Here BPL recognizes and binds to
a biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) present in the receiving
enzyme that contains the lysine residue targeted for biotinylation. 11
Protein biotinylation is an example of a post-translational modifi-
cation that is performed with exquisite specificity. For example, the
E. coli biotin ligase (BirA) modifies just one of the >4000 different
proteins in the bacterial cell. 12 Moreover, the biotin cofactor is co-
valently attached onto the side chain of one single, specific target
lysine residue present in the active site of biotin-dependent enzymes.
BPLs from a wide variety of species are able to modify BCCP from
unrelated organisms, 13–15 highlighting how highly conserved both
the catalytic mechanism and the protein:protein interactions
between enzyme and substrate have remained throughout evolu-
tion. The possible mechanisms through which BirA can switch
between its two functions are described later in this review.
All BPLs contain a conserved 2-domain catalytic core responsi-
ble for biotinyl-5′-AMP synthesis and protein biotinylation. 16 The
greatest divergence between the BPLs is in their N-terminal regions
(see Fig. 2A). Class I BPLs are composed only of the conserved cata-
lytic module that is required for protein biotinylation. Hence, these
are mono functional enzymes. X-ray crystal structures of Class I BPLs
have been reported for Mycobacterium tuberculosis 19 and Pyrococcus
horikoshii. 21 In contrast, the Class II BPLs are truly bi-functional having
both biotin ligase and transcriptional repressor activities due to an
N-terminal DNA binding domain. BirA from E. coli is the most ex-
tensively studied representative of a Class II BPL, having been the
subject of structural, genetic and biophysical studies (reviewed 22,23 ).
 
intermediate for protein biotinylation and corepressor for tran-scriptional regulation. The BirA: biotinyl-5′-AMP (holo) enzyme canthen adopt one of two different fates. When the cellular demandfor biotin is low holo BirA can dimerize and bind DNA where it func-tions as the transcriptional repressor of the biotin biosynthesisoperon, thereby inhibiting the synthesis of more biotin. In con-trast, in the presence of substrate requiring biotinylation the holoBirA functions as a biotin ligase. Here BPL recognizes and binds toa biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) present in the receivingenzyme that contains the lysine residue targeted for biotinylation. 11Protein biotinylation is an example of a post-translational modifi-cation that is performed with exquisite specificity. For example, theE. coli biotin ligase (BirA) modifies just one of the >4000 differentproteins in the bacterial cell. 12 Moreover, the biotin cofactor is co-valently attached onto the side chain of one single, specific targetlysine residue present in the active site of biotin-dependent enzymes.BPLs from a wide variety of species are able to modify BCCP fromunrelated organisms, 13–15 highlighting how highly conserved boththe catalytic mechanism and the protein:protein interactionsbetween enzyme and substrate have remained throughout evolu-tion. The possible mechanisms through which BirA can switchbetween its two functions are described later in this review.All BPLs contain a conserved 2-domain catalytic core responsi-
ble for biotinyl-5′-AMP synthesis and protein biotinylation. 16 The
greatest divergence between the BPLs is in their N-terminal regions
(see Fig. 2A). Class I BPLs are composed only of the conserved cata-
lytic module that is required for protein biotinylation. Hence, these
are mono functional enzymes. X-ray crystal structures of Class I BPLs
have been reported for Mycobacterium tuberculosis 19 and Pyrococcus
horikoshii. 21 In contrast, the Class II BPLs are truly bi-functional having
both biotin ligase and transcriptional repressor activities due to an
N-terminal DNA binding domain. BirA from E. coli is the most ex-
tensively studied representative of a Class II BPL, having been the
subject of structural, genetic and biophysical studies (reviewed 22,23 ).
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