Marked differences were observed be

Marked differences were observed between Americans and Japanese in how they engage in negotiations with family members or friends. Responses from American students indicated that they borrow money from their family on the assumption that they will repay the loan, while Japanese students regarded the money as having been given to them without the need for repayment. Typical American examples were: "I asked my dad if he could loan some money to me for school. The way I asked was describing how much money I needed as well as how I would pay him back;" and "Last winter I was broke and desperately needed new tires on my car. I asked my grandmother to lend me money, promising to return the money." Common Japanese examples were: "I asked my mother to pay the cost of our circle’s training camp by insisting that I’ll do my best in the next exam;" and "I said to my mother, ‘If I can get a good grade in the next test, please buy a cell phone for me,’ and I had her buy that." In the United States where independence and self-reliance have traditionally been encouraged (Stewart & Bennett 1991), people usually take the reimbursement of money for granted even in parent-child relationships. In contrast, Japanese child-rearing practices foster a kind of dependency, or amae, on the part of children that continues into adulthood (Doi 1981). This dependent relationship means that the students often have an expectation that they will be rewarded by their parents for good behavior, such as by earning good grades, and this practice is not unusual even after students have entered university.