With respect to the research on the use of mobile technology in education, Hwang and Tsai (2011) provided a broad discussion of studies on mobile and ubiquitous learning published in six journals between 2001 and 2010. In their review of 154 articles, they discovered that the use of mobile and ubiquitous learning accelerated markedly during 2008; researchers
mostly studied students of higher education, and the fields most often researched were language arts, engineering, and computer technology. Frohberg, Goth, and Schwabe (2009) categorized 102 mobile-learning projects, and discovered that most mobile-learning activities occurred across different settings, and took place within a physical context and an official
environment, such as a classroom or workplace. Regarding the pedagogical roles that mobile devices play in education, most research has used mobile devices primarily as a sort of reinforcement tool to stimulate motivation and strengthen engagement,
and secondarily as a content-delivery tool. Few projects have used mobile devices to assist with constructive thinking or reflection. Furthermore, most learning activities using mobile devices have been controlled by the teacher, with there being only a handful of learner-centered projects in existence. Concerning the communication functions, very few projects have
made any use of cooperative or team communication. Moreover, the vast majority of studies have made use of novice participants; little research has involved experienced participants. When sorted according to educational goals, it was found that the vast majority of research has focused on lower-level knowledge and skills, and ignored higher-level tasks such as analysis
and evaluation. Wong and Looi (2011) investigated the influence of mobile devices on seamless learning. Seamless learning refers to a learning model that students can learn whenever they want to learn in a variety of scenarios and that they can switch from one scenario or one context to another easily and quickly (Chan et al., 2006; Wong & Looi, 2011). Wong and Looi
(2011) selected and analyzed a sample of 54 articles on the use of mobile devices to facilitate seamless learning, and found that all 54 articles contained 10 features, including formal and informal learning, personalized and social learning, and learning across multiple durations and locations