themtousers and linkingthem intousers’ experiences. … Implementationactivities thatassist users in making
sense of and coping with changes, contrasts andsurprisesshould contribute to systemsuccess.”
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Baronas andLouis
proposethat user acceptance of a new system would be facilitated when
changesare realistically anticipatedthrough input fromknowledgeable sources; •
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contrasts aregivenfree expressionthrough discussion among coworkers and between implementers and users;
surprisesareminimizedthrough preview and realistic testing;
assistance is provided incopingthrough the availability andcoaching of experiencedimplementers.
Systemimplementations often impose a threatofreduced control over a user’s work. Baronas and Louis suggest
thatwhenemployees are given theopportunitytoenhance perceived controlduring a systemimplementation, they
will adapt tothe resultant changes and more readily accept the system.
7
Enhancementofcontrolthrough
involvement can be accomplished by
offeringchoices tothe employee, involvingthemwithmeaningful decisions duringthe systems process;
laying the groundwork for predictability by painting acomplete and accurate picturein advanceof the users’
exposureto thesystemduring andafter implementation;
allowingthe employee toassumesome measure of responsibility duringthe systemdesignandimplementation
processmaking themaccountable for the results of specific tasks integral totheimplementation processand
encouraging shared ownership ofthe project;
offeringopportunities to reduce or escape fromthe stress that is inherent ina systemimplementationproject.
Systemimplementers oftenrequest“user participation.”Barkiand Hartwick defineuser participation asa set of
behaviors, activities andassignments that engageusers throughoutthe systems development process.
8
This
participation has multiple dimensions: overall responsibilitythat the user may have withthe project, the relationship
between theuser and the system, and hands-onproject-related tasks. Increasinguser participation in oneormore of
these dimensionsenhances post-development user involvementand attitude. The effectiveness ofinvolvementas a
successfactor isalso be enhanced if implementers recognizethat: “A user isinvolved when he or sheconsidersa
systemto be both importantand personally relevant.”
9
In addition, if anindividual believes that the systemis personally relevant, hewill bemore likely to forma positive
attitudetoward the systemsince attitudes are generally formedonthe basis ofbeliefs.
10
The strength of an
individual’s involvementis directly relatedtothe extremityof his or her attitudetowardthe system. A highlevel of
involvement could drive anextremely positive orextremely negative attitude. A low level ofinvolvement, however,
leaves a personsusceptibleto other influencers (e.g.,persuasive forces, factualarguments). Withincreased user
involvement and a positive attitude, users will haveanincreased desire to participate in development.
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Implementers mightbeable toenhance the probability of effective user involvement byexaminingseveral
antecedents of and strategiesfor involvement including:
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Involvement roles (primaryusers, secondary userssuch as input specialistsorrecipients of outputs,top
management)
User predispositiontowardthe system(often based uponinvolvementwithand attitudetowardthe present
informationsystem).
Development conditions includingthe type of system(appropriateness of the systemfor the organization,the
knowledge needed toworkwith the systemand the impact of the system).
User beliefs regarding perceived abilitytoeffectively contribute duringthe development process. Low selfefficacy perceptions may inhibit a user’s desire to participate regardless of other factors. It is important to
provide opportunities to participate whereusers will judge their experiences to be successful.
Post-developmentcognitive, affective andmotivational factors can beoptimizedbyprovidingmeaningful
participationopportunities tousers whodeem the systemto be personally relevantand important.
Mostimportantly, user participationin systems developmentmayrevolvearoundtheissue ofusercontrol.
Maximizing the user’sinstrumental control over the proposed systemis a successful participation strategy.
Upon becoming a project participant, manyfactors influence the strength of the individual’s participation-toinvolvement relationship:
14
Reasons for participating (i.e., voluntaryor coerced). Huntonand Beeler’sfield study indicated that
coerced/mandated participation wouldbe an ineffective means of gaining participation, particularly if the users
donot gaina sense ofresponsibility orcontrol duringthe course of their participation.