The findings also suggest that migration competes primarily with local wage work,
altering the composition of rural incomes away from local wages and in favor of migrant remittances, and that the income effects of migration depend critically on 82 J. E. Taylor & A. Lopez-Feldman other household assets, particularly landholdings. In households without migrants in the United States, the returns to land are lower, and the head’s education plays a more important role in income generation, primarily via off-farm activities.