Household income-to-needs ratio (logged) is measured using the log of parents’ reported combined household income at the time of the wave I interview, divided by the poverty threshold in 1994–1995 adjusted for household size. Parent healthy behaviors are parent (typically the mother)
self-reports of whether any residential parent smokes, any residential parent drinks heavily (reports more than five drinks in one sitting in the last month), or whether the interviewed parent self-identifies as obese (actual height and weight are not recorded). I recode each of
these variables so that 1 = parent is non-obese, 1 = does not binge drink, and 1 = does not smoke. Race-ethnicity is self-reported by the adolescent at the wave I interview and all analyses include Asian, Hispanic, non-Hispanic black, and non-Hispanic white respondents. Models also control for US nativity, as foreign-born adolescents are generally healthier than second or later-generation (US born) counterparts (Harris, 1999). Finally, gender is self-reported at wave