Whereas some researchers dismiss the use of formal
controls as totally incompatible with innovation (e.g.,
Ouchi, 1977) there are those who advocate more organic
forms of control—meaning a fluid style of management
dealing with issues as they emerge—to foster creativity
and improvisation (e.g., Dougherty, 1992). At the other end
of the scale, are those who prescribe more mechanistic
forms of control like disciplined planning as a way to focus
on and speed project efforts (e.g., Wheelwright and Clark,
1992; Zirger and Maidique, 1990).