Without it being the central research focus, each commented on the seeming predominance of lecturer-centred, transmission teaching, an emphasis on recall and a discouragement of independent learning (Akyeampong 2003, viii; Kunje, Lewin, and Stuart 2003, xiii; Lefoka and Sebatane 2003, x). Research in Botswana has also found that lecturer-centred methods tend to predominate in teacher education (Mannathoko 1998; Tafa 2001).