In seeking to describe the influence managers can exert on employee behavior, scholars have proposed various performance
management taxonomies. Anthony, Dearden, and Bedford (1989) for example, dichotomized performance management
into formal and informal controls. Ouchi (1979) used the categories of market, bureaucracy, and clan controls. Hopwood
(1974) described the choices as administrative versus social controls; while Merchant (1985) offered a trichotomy of results,
action, and personnel controls.