3.4.2. Independent variables: psychosocial resources, social support, and family of origin
The following variables are included as predictors of both initial (age-13) healthy behaviors and, when interacted with age, rate of healthy behavior change between ages 13 and 24. Each variable is measured during the wave I interview. Psychological distress and self-efficacy are
psychosocial resources that influence individuals’ engagement in healthy behaviors.Psychological distress is measured using the CES-D (Center for Epidemiological Studies – Depression) scale; higher scores indicate greater distress (Cronbach’s a = .89). Self-efficacy is measured using a seven-item scale including items such as ‘‘You usually go out of your way to avoid having to deal with problems in your life’’ and ‘‘You have a lot to be proud of.’’ Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy (Cronbach’s a = .60). These measures are mean-centered in models. Social support from peers is a dichotomous indicator where 1 = respondent feels that their friends care about them ‘‘very much’’ on a Likert-type scale ranging from ‘‘not at all’’ to ‘‘very much’’ (the modal category). Social support from family averages two (if living only with a residential mother) or four (if living with a residential mother and father) Likert-type questions asking whether respondents feel ‘‘not at all’’ to ‘‘very much’’ cared for by and close to residential parent(s); this score is also highly skewed and therefore dichotomized so that 1 = respondent feels very close to and cared for by residential parent(s). School connectedness evaluates whether respondents feel like they belong in and are a part of their school, and whether they are treated fairly at school; higher scores indicate greater connectedness (Cronbach’s a = .79).