Empirical evidence also indicates that a sovereign tends to default in periods of low available resources. Government resources are low during a cyclical downturn. Tomz and Wright (2007) report that 62 percent of defaults over the last 200 years occurred in years when the output level in the defaulting country was below its long run trend. Fluctuations of terms of trade (ratio of the price of exports to the price of imports) are an important driving force behind the business cycles in some emerging economies (Mendoza 1995, Broda 2004). At the same time, several emerging economies strongly rely on commodity taxation as a source of public revenues and depend largely on imported intermediate goods that have no close substitutes. Some authors find that terms of trade fluctuations are a significant predictor of sovereign default and interest rate spreads in emerging economies (Caballero, 2003; Cuadra and Sapriza, 2006). Events adversely affecting a country’s productivity, such as wars or civil conflicts, can also lead to sovereign defaults (Sturzenegger and Zettelmeyer, 2006). Defaults may also be triggered by a devaluation of the local currency when a relatively large fraction of the sovereign’s debt is denominated in foreign currency and its revenues rely heavily on the taxation of nontradable goods. The magnitude of crises triggered by a devaluation of the local currency can be amplified by currency mismatches of households, the non-financial corporate sector, or the banking sector. The next section discusses in more depth how stress in the banking sector may lead to a sovereign debt crisis.
2.2 Sovereign debt crisis as a result of banking crises Banking crises are very frequently followed by or concurrent to sovereign debt crises, as documented by Reinhart and Rogoff (2011). Banks lie at the heart of the payments system, so a downturn in this sector can readily spread through the rest of the economy, with far reaching consequences for both the private and public sectors. As a result, governments have very strong incentives to avoid disruptions in the banking system. The recent European crisis offers the latest evidence as to the large extent to which governments may go to rescue their banks, making it clear that financial sector problems tend to become fiscal sector problems. In that way, banking crises commonly set the stage for sovereign debt crises. Banking crisis episodes like those in Ireland in 2008 and in Spain in 2012 showcase how the liquidity and solvency troubles of the banking sector can radically turn into a fiscal burden sufficiently large to lead into a sovereign debt crisis that requires external assistance for its containment. Banking crises may translate into sovereign debt crises through two types of risk transmission channels. A first set of channels is associated to the role of the government as the provider of a “safety net” to the financial system, and the resulting presence of government contingent liabilities. A second set of channels relates to the existing domestic structural macroeconomic conditions at the time of the crisis. The government plays the role of a “safety net” to the banking system via three mechanisms: first, a government’s commitment to provide support to the banking sector through explicit or implicit bank liability guarantees can saddle the government with substantial debt from private banks, and thus leave it financially vulnerable. For instance, the 27 member countries of the European Union (EU) approved government guarantees on bank liabilities totaling about 30 percent of 2011 EU GDP from the first quarter of 2008 to the third quarter of 9 2012. There is an important dispersion in the value of guarantees across these countries, with Ireland providing the most guarantees at about 250 percent of 2011 GDP. As Acharya, Drechsler, and Schnabl (2013) highlight, Ireland’s provision of blanket guarantees on deposits of six of its largest banks on September 30 of 2008 was immediately followed by a sharp decline in the credit default swap (CDS) premiums for banks and an equally marked increase in the government’s CDS premium, which over the next month more than quadrupled from about 100 basis points to 400 basis points within six months. The sharp increase and opposite move in the sovereign CDS premium in Ireland strongly suggests that the provision of guarantees by the government to the banking sector resulted in an important risk transfer from the banking sector to the government. The sovereign interest rate spread of Irish bonds over comparable German debt instruments rose to historically high levels, and Ireland eventually needed a bailout in 2010. Acharya, Drechsler, and Schnabl also point out that this episode is not isolated to Ireland. Second, sovereign bailouts are a major source of concern about fiscal sustainability. The extent to which the liabilities of the banking sector are socialized and the costs are transferred to taxpayers depends significantly on the resolution regime adopted for the stressed banks (Laeven and Valencia, 2010). Moreover, the lack of schemes to resolve insolvent institutions can result in the banking sector generating a large contingent liability for the sovereign. Hence, governments often contemplate a wide range of measures to aid the banking sector, including recapitalizations, asset relief interventions, and liquidity measures other than guarantees. For example, all the different forms of state aid approved by European Union member countries from the first quarter of 2008 to the third quarter of 2012 add up to about 5 trillion euros, or about 40 percent of 2011 EU GDP. 10 Third, balance sheet holdings of sovereign securities by the banking sector can represent a substantial fraction of total bank assets in many economies, and can largely magnify bailout costs for the government by reinforcing adverse asset price dynamics during banking crises. A bailout of the banking sector lowers government debt prices, and the further deterioration of the balance sheets of those banks holding public debt can induce a broader, more costly, public bailout or even a sovereign debt default (Bolton and Jeanne, 2011). A second set of channels that help explain how banking crises can affect sovereign debt sustainability relates to the macroeconomic conditions in the crisis country: first, as discussed in Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999), banking crises commonly precede currency crises. As a result, a large sovereign or banking sector exposure to foreign currency liabilities weakens the ability of the government to act as a “safety net” for the banking sector, and increases the likelihood that banking problems lead to a sovereign debt crisis. Second, banking crises tend to induce severe economic downturns that weaken the fiscal position of the government. A crisis in the banking sector translates into credit rationing and higher borrowing costs for firms. For instance, non-financial firms may have to switch their source of funding and tap bond markets, an option that may not be available to medium and smaller firms especially during a crisis. Similarly, companies will likely have to rely more heavily on more expensive working capital financing from other non-financial firms. The collapse in tax revenues and the increase in public expenses from automatic stabilizers are generally accompanied by a surge in public debt, sovereign credit rating downgrades and, on occasions, sovereign debt defaults. Laeven and Valencia (2012) and Gennaioli, Martin and Rossi (2013a) show and explain that the output losses and the increases in public debt tend to be larger in advanced economies in part because deeper financial systems lead to more disruptive 11 banking crises. Interestingly, fiscal costs relative to GDP, or to the financial system assets, are larger in developing economies, but while the fiscal outlays in developing countries are largely associated to bailouts, in advanced economies they represent a small fraction of the increase in public debt, with discretionary fiscal policy and automatic fiscal stabilizers constituting the largest component. 3. Transmission from sovereign stress to banks The previous section discussed the effect of banking crises on the sovereign’s solvency. Sovereign stress can also have significant effects on banks’ solvency and their access to funding. This section outlines some channels through which sovereign troubles can affect banks. 3.1 Sovereign debt holdings and bank solvency The most direct channel for the transmission of sovereign stress to the banking sector is through the banks’ holdings of sovereign debt. Banks maintain a portion of their assets in sovereign debt for different reasons. In several countries, sovereign securities are the most liquid asset available, and banks can use them to store their liquid reserves to satisfy deposit redemptions (Gennaioli, Martin, and Rossi, 2013a). Banks also hold sovereign debt for investment purposes. Traditionally, bank regulators have considered sovereign debt less risky than corporate debt, allowing banks to fund a lower proportion of their sovereign debt holdings with capital (Hannoun, 2011). 1 As we discuss later, banks also use sovereign debt for secured 1 Prior to the introduction of the Basel III capital requirements, supervisors followed the guidelines on risk weights for sovereign exposures proposed under the Basel II capital accord (BCBS, 2006). Under these guidelines, debt securities issued by a AA- rating or above would receive a 0 risk weight, while securities rated between A- and A+ would receive a 20 percent risk weight. However, the guidelines also stated that “at national discretion, a lower risk weight may be applied to banks’ exposures to their sovereign (or central bank) of incorporation denominated in domestic currency and funded in that currency”. Some countries relied on this statement to deviate from the proposed guideline and assign different risk
หลักฐานประจักษ์ยังบ่งชี้ว่า โซเวอเรนที่มีแนวโน้มจะ เริ่มต้นในรอบระยะเวลาของการใช้ทรัพยากรต่ำสุด รัฐบาลทรัพยากรต่ำในช่วงชะลอตัวห่วง Tomz และไรท์ (2007) รายงานว่า ร้อยละ 62 ของต้น 200 ปีเกิดขึ้นในปีเมื่อระดับผลผลิตในประเทศเริ่มต้นด้านล่างของแนวโน้มระยะยาว ความผันผวนของเงื่อนไขทางการค้า (อัตราส่วนของราคาส่งออกกับราคาของนำเข้า) จะเป็นแรงผลักดันสำคัญเบื้องหลังวงจรธุรกิจในบางประเทศเกิดใหม่ (เมนโดซา 1995, Broda 2004) ในเวลาเดียวกัน ประเทศเกิดใหม่หลายขอพึ่งพาภาษีโภคภัณฑ์เป็นแหล่งของรายได้สาธารณะ และส่วนใหญ่พึ่งนำเข้าสินค้าระดับกลางที่มีทดไม่ปิด บางผู้เขียนพบว่า เงื่อนไขของความผันผวนทางการค้าเป็นจำนวนประตูสำคัญเริ่มต้นอธิปไตยและแพร่กระจายของอัตราดอกเบี้ยในประเทศเกิดใหม่ (Caballero, 2003 Cuadra และ Sapriza, 2006) ยังสามารถนำเหตุการณ์ที่ส่งผลกระทบต่อผลผลิตของประเทศ เช่นสงครามหรือความขัดแย้งของพลเรือน เริ่มต้นอธิปไตย (Sturzenegger และ Zettelmeyer, 2006) เริ่มต้นอาจยังถูกทริกเกอร์ โดย devaluation ของสกุลเงินท้องถิ่นเมื่อเศษขนาดค่อนข้างใหญ่ของพ่อหนี้เป็นเงินตราต่างประเทศ และรายได้ใช้ภาษีสินค้า nontradable มาก สามารถขยายขนาดของวิกฤตที่ทริกเกอร์ โดย devaluation ของสกุลเงินท้องถิ่น โดย mismatches สกุลเงินของครัวเรือน ภาคธุรกิจไม่ใช่ทางการเงิน หรือภาคการธนาคาร ส่วนถัดไปอธิบายในเชิงลึกเพิ่มเติมว่าในภาคการธนาคารมีความเครียดอาจนำไปสู่วิกฤติหนี้2.2 Sovereign debt crisis as a result of banking crises Banking crises are very frequently followed by or concurrent to sovereign debt crises, as documented by Reinhart and Rogoff (2011). Banks lie at the heart of the payments system, so a downturn in this sector can readily spread through the rest of the economy, with far reaching consequences for both the private and public sectors. As a result, governments have very strong incentives to avoid disruptions in the banking system. The recent European crisis offers the latest evidence as to the large extent to which governments may go to rescue their banks, making it clear that financial sector problems tend to become fiscal sector problems. In that way, banking crises commonly set the stage for sovereign debt crises. Banking crisis episodes like those in Ireland in 2008 and in Spain in 2012 showcase how the liquidity and solvency troubles of the banking sector can radically turn into a fiscal burden sufficiently large to lead into a sovereign debt crisis that requires external assistance for its containment. Banking crises may translate into sovereign debt crises through two types of risk transmission channels. A first set of channels is associated to the role of the government as the provider of a “safety net” to the financial system, and the resulting presence of government contingent liabilities. A second set of channels relates to the existing domestic structural macroeconomic conditions at the time of the crisis. The government plays the role of a “safety net” to the banking system via three mechanisms: first, a government’s commitment to provide support to the banking sector through explicit or implicit bank liability guarantees can saddle the government with substantial debt from private banks, and thus leave it financially vulnerable. For instance, the 27 member countries of the European Union (EU) approved government guarantees on bank liabilities totaling about 30 percent of 2011 EU GDP from the first quarter of 2008 to the third quarter of 9 2012. There is an important dispersion in the value of guarantees across these countries, with Ireland providing the most guarantees at about 250 percent of 2011 GDP. As Acharya, Drechsler, and Schnabl (2013) highlight, Ireland’s provision of blanket guarantees on deposits of six of its largest banks on September 30 of 2008 was immediately followed by a sharp decline in the credit default swap (CDS) premiums for banks and an equally marked increase in the government’s CDS premium, which over the next month more than quadrupled from about 100 basis points to 400 basis points within six months. The sharp increase and opposite move in the sovereign CDS premium in Ireland strongly suggests that the provision of guarantees by the government to the banking sector resulted in an important risk transfer from the banking sector to the government. The sovereign interest rate spread of Irish bonds over comparable German debt instruments rose to historically high levels, and Ireland eventually needed a bailout in 2010. Acharya, Drechsler, and Schnabl also point out that this episode is not isolated to Ireland. Second, sovereign bailouts are a major source of concern about fiscal sustainability. The extent to which the liabilities of the banking sector are socialized and the costs are transferred to taxpayers depends significantly on the resolution regime adopted for the stressed banks (Laeven and Valencia, 2010). Moreover, the lack of schemes to resolve insolvent institutions can result in the banking sector generating a large contingent liability for the sovereign. Hence, governments often contemplate a wide range of measures to aid the banking sector, including recapitalizations, asset relief interventions, and liquidity measures other than guarantees. For example, all the different forms of state aid approved by European Union member countries from the first quarter of 2008 to the third quarter of 2012 add up to about 5 trillion euros, or about 40 percent of 2011 EU GDP. 10 Third, balance sheet holdings of sovereign securities by the banking sector can represent a substantial fraction of total bank assets in many economies, and can largely magnify bailout costs for the government by reinforcing adverse asset price dynamics during banking crises. A bailout of the banking sector lowers government debt prices, and the further deterioration of the balance sheets of those banks holding public debt can induce a broader, more costly, public bailout or even a sovereign debt default (Bolton and Jeanne, 2011). A second set of channels that help explain how banking crises can affect sovereign debt sustainability relates to the macroeconomic conditions in the crisis country: first, as discussed in Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999), banking crises commonly precede currency crises. As a result, a large sovereign or banking sector exposure to foreign currency liabilities weakens the ability of the government to act as a “safety net” for the banking sector, and increases the likelihood that banking problems lead to a sovereign debt crisis. Second, banking crises tend to induce severe economic downturns that weaken the fiscal position of the government. A crisis in the banking sector translates into credit rationing and higher borrowing costs for firms. For instance, non-financial firms may have to switch their source of funding and tap bond markets, an option that may not be available to medium and smaller firms especially during a crisis. Similarly, companies will likely have to rely more heavily on more expensive working capital financing from other non-financial firms. The collapse in tax revenues and the increase in public expenses from automatic stabilizers are generally accompanied by a surge in public debt, sovereign credit rating downgrades and, on occasions, sovereign debt defaults. Laeven and Valencia (2012) and Gennaioli, Martin and Rossi (2013a) show and explain that the output losses and the increases in public debt tend to be larger in advanced economies in part because deeper financial systems lead to more disruptive 11 banking crises. Interestingly, fiscal costs relative to GDP, or to the financial system assets, are larger in developing economies, but while the fiscal outlays in developing countries are largely associated to bailouts, in advanced economies they represent a small fraction of the increase in public debt, with discretionary fiscal policy and automatic fiscal stabilizers constituting the largest component. 3. Transmission from sovereign stress to banks The previous section discussed the effect of banking crises on the sovereign’s solvency. Sovereign stress can also have significant effects on banks’ solvency and their access to funding. This section outlines some channels through which sovereign troubles can affect banks. 3.1 Sovereign debt holdings and bank solvency The most direct channel for the transmission of sovereign stress to the banking sector is through the banks’ holdings of sovereign debt. Banks maintain a portion of their assets in sovereign debt for different reasons. In several countries, sovereign securities are the most liquid asset available, and banks can use them to store their liquid reserves to satisfy deposit redemptions (Gennaioli, Martin, and Rossi, 2013a). Banks also hold sovereign debt for investment purposes. Traditionally, bank regulators have considered sovereign debt less risky than corporate debt, allowing banks to fund a lower proportion of their sovereign debt holdings with capital (Hannoun, 2011). 1 As we discuss later, banks also use sovereign debt for secured 1 Prior to the introduction of the Basel III capital requirements, supervisors followed the guidelines on risk weights for sovereign exposures proposed under the Basel II capital accord (BCBS, 2006). Under these guidelines, debt securities issued by a AA- rating or above would receive a 0 risk weight, while securities rated between A- and A+ would receive a 20 percent risk weight. However, the guidelines also stated that “at national discretion, a lower risk weight may be applied to banks’ exposures to their sovereign (or central bank) of incorporation denominated in domestic currency and funded in that currency”. Some countries relied on this statement to deviate from the proposed guideline and assign different risk
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