1) Diverse perspectives: The realization that conventional natural resource management has tended to
try to solve problems from a narrow range of options has been one of the main motivators for
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participation. Often, for example, citizens in resource extraction communities believe they must
chose between preserving the environment and economic well being. As long as the perspectives
voiced in addressing the issue are only those of a particular sector (class, ethnic group, industry,
occupation), development of alternatives to such zero sum thinking is not likely to occur, and other
voices who may present less stark alternatives will be excluded from the discussion. By seeking
perspectives of those who have not conventionally participated in decision making, the community
may develop other options that will allow for solutions that serve multiple interests, rather then
trading off one for the other (see Freire 1973, Chambers 1983, Habermas 1989).
2) Systematic learning: Participatory resource management is often an ongoing process that values
constant learning and adaptation to new insights and constantly changing conditions. Communities
develop a process for understanding the local economic, social, and natural system and analyzing how
actions and policies impact that system. By establishing processes that encourage constant learning
and adaptation, communities debunk the myth of the silver bullet that will solve the problems in
perpetuity. They are more likely to decide to take actions to address identified important issues, but
develop a systematic approach to measure the impacts of those actions. Community members are
likely to begin valuing their own insights and knowledge systems if they are helped to develop a
systematic way of learning about the ecological, social, and economic system in which they live—and
evaluating actions in reference to those systems. Ultimately natural resource management should be
about empowering communities to improve their quality of life through better investments in their
natural resources. Through developing a systematic learning approach, community members
potentially develop the tools for ongoing analysis in the management of natural resources, rather than
having to depend on outside experts (Pretty and Chambers 1994, Guijt, et al. 1999, Innis and
Boherman 1999).
3) Context specificity: Conventional natural resource management often presents technologies and
methods that can be applied in many places simultaneously. Examples of this are the agricultural
technologies, such as hybrid seeds, that were widely distributed to farmers as improvements with
relatively little adaptation to the local ecological, economic, and social context. While these
technologies created some improvements in quality of life for some farmers, they also contributed to
ecological and social problems (Hazel 1990, Pretty 1996, Allen and Bosch 1999). Participatory
approaches often emerge out of an effort to create development processes that are much more rooted
in the local context. Communities carry out activities, such as transect walks, where a group from the
community walk across the various ecosystems and microclimates of their community or farm, to
understand the ecological/environmental, social, and economic aspects that make up their community.
The community and outside experts together identify issues, propose solutions, and evaluate actions
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based on an understanding of the local context. Outside technology may be brought in, but is adopted
based on, rather than in spite of, the local context (Savory 1989, Pretty and Chambers 1994).
4) Group inquiry: Often conventional development involves decisions made by a small group within
the community, often in collaboration with outside experts (sometimes scientists) who interact with
other development experts or researchers, but not others in the local community. Many participatory
approaches, in constrast, explicitly attempt to widen the circle of decision making to involve more of
the community. Group inquiry involves an open process where community members meet and
identify the major issues of concern and existing community assets and begin a process of identifying
possible solutions for those concerns, using local tools as much as possible. Numerous
methodologies, such as the development of cognitive maps, have been developed to facilitate group
inquiry into problems and possible solutions (see Slim and Thompson 1996, and Rocheleau 1994).
5) Facilitating External Agents. While most of the writing on participatory approaches has
emphasized the need for empowerment of local citizens, many approaches also recognize that
external development agents (either from government agencies or non-local non-governmental
organizations) will play a key role shaping management of natural resources and development at the
community level. These external agents can provide technical and scientific knowledge,