4.1.4. Urinary system
Heavy metals can induce kidney damage such as an initial tubular dysfunction evidenced by an increased excretion of
low molecular weight proteins, which progresses to decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In addition they increase the risk of stone formation or nephrocalcinosis (Damek-Poprawa and Sawicka-Kapusta, 2003; Jarup, 2003; Loghman-Adham, 1997) and renal cancer (Boffetta et al., 1993; Vamvakas et al., 1993).