In any case, without a commensurate increase in output, which ceteris paribus increases environmental impact, labour
productivity growth risks increasing unemployment (Spangenberg, 2004). This ‘productivity trap’ (Jackson and Victor, 2011)
presents a significant barrier to sustainability transitions, which can only be overcome in one oftwo ways withoutincreasing
unemployment or environmental degradation. One mechanism is reducing average working hours per employee. The other is
shifting the structure ofthe economy toward low-labour productivity sectors. A potential negative consequence of decreased