All of these blows to the country’s image will be upsetting for Thais, who have long craved recognition as a developed nation on the world stage. They will also provoke anxieties and fears that are buried deep in the national psyche.
Thailand has always been outward looking. Sitting at the crossroads between China and India, the kingdoms which preceded modern Thailand looked with awe on the two great powers and absorbed much of their culture in attempts to emulate their prominence. Seventeenth century Ayutthaya was particularly cosmopolitan, with the palace hiring a stunning array of foreign experts from across Asia and Europe and showing a willingness to integrate with – and learn from – the outside world. The kingdom thrived and became rich and powerful as a result. However, when the European powers came to the region in greater numbers during the first half of the nineteenth century, the Siamese elites developed some rather ambiguous feelings towards them.
As before, the elites were enthusiastic about what they might assimilate from the advanced nations. Western innovations in accounting, navigation, print media and astronomy were of particular interest. European fashions, furnishings and luxury goods also became popular amongst the wealthy of Siam. But the benefits brought by the Europeans came entangled with the threat of colonization. Feeling squeezed by the British to their south and west and by the French to their east, the Siamese began to fear it was only a matter of time before they too were colonized. The concerns heightened when they were forced to sign unequal treaties which awarded extraterritoriality to foreigners and allowed them to trade freely in Bangkok. This semi-colonization was made more humiliating by an awareness that the Europeans residing in the kingdom considered themselves superior to the “uncivilized” natives.
To overcome feelings of inferiority and to fend off the “civilizing mission” of colonization, the Siamese elites undertook a vast modernization project. By bringing Siam in line with the modern European states, they hoped that the kingdom might be permitted to maintain its sovereignty. Modest reforms began during the reign of King Mongkut and broadened during that of his son, King Chulalongkorn. Power in the kingdom became more centralized in bureaucratic institutions, including a finance office, interior ministry, standardized court system and a modern, standing army. The kingdom’s borders were defined and attempts were made to centralize tax revenues. To create tax-paying citizens and divert criticism from the Western nations, new laws were introduced to reduce slavery and forced labor. The word “civilized” – pronounced siwilai to better suit the local tongue – was borrowed from English and came to represent the aspirations of Thai elites to stand shoulder to shoulder with the Europeans as a modern, developed people.
In the end, avoiding direct colonization had more to do with an agreement between the colonial powers to use Siam as a buffer zone than it did with any actions taken by the Siamese themselves. Nonetheless, the narrative of a “proud people who have never been colonized” was seized as a nation-building tool and used to rationalize feelings of exceptionalism and superiority over Southeast Asian neighbors. However, the pride of not being colonized was inextricably linked to the humiliation suffered at the hands of the Europeans – a tension that gave birth to modern Thai nationalism. It is made worse by the loss of significant territories during the period, which continues to cause distress, and by the suddenness and rapid pace of development, which accelerated throughout the twentieth century. The result is a tendency to look inwards and backwards — to react with anger and insecurity to outside interference and to mourn the loss of an imagined “Thainess,” which is thought to have been eroded in the process of modernization.
These feelings rose to the surface in the aftermath of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. When the International Monetary Fund (IMF) intervened to rescue Thailand with a bailout package that mandated reforms to the country’s currency, banking and financial system, many Thais felt the colonial threat had returned in a new form. The king warned of the dangers of excessive capitalism and urged Thais to “walk backwards into the khlong” (canal), meaning that they should stop trying to compete with industrialized nations and retreat to a simpler, more pastoral Thailand of times gone by. A few years later, Thaksin Shinawatra won his first election, partly by effectively harnessing nationalist sentiment in the wake of the financial crisis. As prime minster, he was credited with overseeing Thailand’s financial recovery and “freeing” the country from the conditions of the IMF. In 2003, when the United Nations raised concerns about extra-judicial killings during the Thai government’s “war on drugs,” Thaksin defiantly retorted that “the UN is not my