8. Because of its hydrophobic character, fullerene is expected
to partition mainly into the lipid bilayer interior, as has been
shown previously using atomistic simulations22. This is
confirmed by calculations of the potential of mean force (PMF)
of monomeric fullerene as a function of distance from the centre
of the lipid bilayer (see Supplementary Information, Fig. S1). The
results show qualitative agreement with atomistic studies22,
although the coarse-grained model suggests that fullerene has an
even stronger preference for the bilayer interior.
To characterize the dynamics of fullerene penetration into the
bilayer, we calculated the local diffusion coefficients along the
bilayer normal D(z) and the local resistances R(z) (Fig. 1).
Fullerene diffuses in the bilayer more slowly than in bulk water.
The local diffusion coefficients for fullerene are about one order
of magnitude less than for small molecules27,29. The diffusion rate
drops by over an order of magnitude in the head group
region. Fullerene permeability is 6 1022 cm s21 at 300 K,
higher than for water30 and about two orders of magnitude lower
than for benzene29.
Unbiased simulations confirm that monomeric fullerene placed
in bulk water spontaneously enters the bilayer within a few hundred
nanoseconds. Fullerene rapidly passes the lipid head group region
(average time, 500 ps) and then moves more slowly towards the
lipid tails region (Fig. 2a). Inside the bilayer, it dwells within
about 1 nm of the centre and translocation outside is never
observed, consistent with the large energy barrier for transfer
from the bilayer to water. We performed additional simulations
of fullerene permeation in a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine
(DPPC) lipid bilayer. Translocation kinetics and thermodynamics
did not show significant differences between the two model
membranes (see Supplementary Information).
To investigate fullerene aggregation and its effect on
permeability, we performed 22 simulations (4 ms each) of a large
dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) bilayer with 16 fullerenes.
Fullerene molecules were initially placed either close to the
centre (5 simulations), close to the lipid head group region
(5 simulations) or in bulk water (12 simulations). In the water
phase, fullerenes aggregated into a large cluster within hundreds
of nanoseconds. In two simulations the clusters included all 16
molecules and did not penetrate the membrane within the
simulation time. In all other cases (10 simulations), smaller
clusters of up to ten molecules formed, which penetrated the
bilayer (Fig. 2b). The average waiting time for the penetration of
fullerene aggregates in the bilayer was 1 ms. The first step of
fullerene translocation is the formation of a small pore in the
lipid head group region. This free space is readily filled by one
fullerene (protruding from the aggregate; Fig. 2b, 768 ns).
Averaging over ten simulations, the lifetime of the pore is less
than 500 ps. The pore does not appear to be induced by the
proximity of the fullerene cluster; nanoparticles were found
within 0.6 nm of the lipid head group region several times in
each simulation before translocation occurred. Instead, local area
fluctuations in the bilayer play an important role in the
penetration mechanism. After the first fullerene is inserted in the
head group region, it readily moves towards the lipid tail region,
followed by the rest of the cluster (which does not substantially
change its geometry). As the lipid head groups move aside to
make room for the fullerene cluster, no free space pockets are
formed. A cluster of ten fullerenes requires 15 ns to completely
pass the lipid head groups, compared with 500 ps for
monomeric fullerene.
When fullerenes are placed close to the lipid head group region,
only small clusters (two or three molecules) form rapidly and
penetrate the bilayer within a few hundred nanoseconds. After
penetration, they disaggregate on a microsecond timescale. When
fullerenes are placed inside the bilayer, they do not form
stable aggregates.
It is known that fullerene in water spontaneously forms
nanosized aggregates6–8. Therefore, it is important to evaluate
the energetic balance for its transfer from an aggregate in water
to a position inside the bilayer. For computational reasons, we
started from a solid-like (periodic) fullerene aggregate and
calculated the energy required to move a single fullerene from
the aggregate into the gas phase. We then calculated the
hydration free energy (for a single fullerene), corresponding to
the transfer from the gas phase into bulk water, and finally the
free energy of transfer from bulk water into the centre of the
lipid bilayer. These artificial steps combined describe the full
process of interest. Transferring one fullerene from the
aggregated form into bulk water is highly unfavourable, with a
free energy cost of 60+20 kJ mol21
. The energy gain upon
transfer from bulk water to the bilayer interior is 110 kJ mol21
.
Summing the contributions, the overall balance indicates that
removing one fullerene from a large fullerene aggregate and
placing it into the bilayer interior is favourable by
50+20 kJ mol21
. This result is consistent with our unbiased
simulations, showing that fullerene clusters spontaneously
penetrate the lipid bilayer.
EFF