While the IHRD literature helps us better understand the HRD interventions in
service firms across cultures, the theoretical frameworks may not always apply. First,
much of the literature focuses on issues relating to the T&D in MNCs (e.g., Hooi,
2010; Vance & Paik, 2005). As the majority of the IHRD literature examines the policies,
programs, and practices related with preparing expatriates for current and future
international assignments, Bartlett et al. (2002) note that there is a gap in the IHRD
literature relating to host-country nationals who are employed in the MNCs.
Furthermore, a limitation of previous models of IHRD is that they usually focus on
managers rather than employees in non-managerial positions (Bartlett et al., 2002).
This is especially important for service firms where employees are in direct contact
with customers (Tomé, 2011).