In order to explain such pessimism, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the early Frankfurt theorists were writing at time of extreme social crisis. The Institute of Social Research was established in 1923 and affiliated to the University of Frankfurt. When the Nazis came to power it was forced into exile. During this period it came under the directorship of Horkheimer who now gave the work of the school a more philosophical orientation. The school also developed an interest in psychoanalysis which was concerned with the manipulation of desire and the fate of the individual. By the time of its return.