Volkswagen’s command-and-control structure probably made it difficult for Mr. Winterkorn to escape responsibility, even if there was no direct culpability. Critics, including management experts and analysts, have long faulted what they say is a company culture that hampers internal communication and may discourage midlevel managers from delivering bad news.
“For something of this magnitude, one would expect that the C.E.O. would know, and if he doesn’t know, then he’s willfully ignorant,” said Jeffrey A. Thinnes, a former Daimler executive who works as a consultant for European companies on compliance and ethics issues.
Volkswagen, he said, should have had a system in place to ensure that something that exposed the company to so much risk came to the attention of top management.