randomised controlled trials that compare the efficacy of
uterine pressure with CCT. To study the benefits and risks
of uterine pressure combined with CCT, a randomised controlled
trial comparing both interventions should be performed.
In the European exploratory study conducted by
Winter et al. (2007), the practice of CCT was observed in
39–51% of hospitals in Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal and Switzerland. However, in about 82–100% of
hospitals in each country, the practice of massaging the
uterus in the presence of PPH was observed. Until other
evidence is provided, in accordance with the author’s systematic
review, the wisest course of action is to maintain
the practice of CCT and prophylactic administration of
uterotonics for expulsion of the placenta, as it appears that
CCT reduces the risk of PPH and duration of TSL.
After expelling the placenta, performing uterine massage
is one of the practices recommended by the ICM, FIGO
and WHO, in the active management of TSL, which consists
of massaging the fundus to the uterus until it is firmly
contracted. To ensure that the uterus does not relax after
the massage, uterine palpation should be performed every
15 minutes, and the massage should be repeated if necessary
(FIGO/ICM 2004, FIGO-SMNH Committee 2012). In
a recent Cochrane systematic review, a small randomised
trial conducted in Egypt was included that compared the
practice of uterine massage with massaging after practice
without active management of TSL, including the practice
of prophylactic administration of oxytocin. The results of
the review showed a reduction in blood loss in the experimental
group (with uterine massage) and the need for additional
uterotonics in about 80% of the cases. Thus, uterine
massage after delivery of the placenta appears to be advisable
to prevent PPH.
The number of women with blood loss >500 ml was
small, and there was no single case of retained placenta in
either group. However, the administration of two blood
transfusions was necessary in the control group (Hofmeyr
et al. 2010).
Despite the limitations of the clinical trial selected (small
sample, the group of participants and professionals was not
double-blinded), the authors considered that the risk of
skew was low because the monitoring of blood loss was
performed by nurses and not by investigators. Although
they believed that the methodological quality of their study
was moderate, the authors concluded that further studies
are required, with a larger number of participants to
estimate the effects of sustained uterine massage, with or
without administration of uterotonics. This revision adds
support to the joint statement of FIGO/ICM (2004) and the
WHO recommendations on the management of TSL.
The technique of draining placental blood involves declamping
the umbilical cord on the maternal side immediately
after the birth of the child, so that the blood can flow
freely into a container. This technique may or may not be
used in conjunction with other interventions, such as uterotonic
drug delivery, CCT or maternal expulsive efforts. In
two clinical trials selected for this integrative review, the
participants were randomly divided into two groups: experimental
group, where the umbilical cord was declamped
immediately after being lacquered, and the control group,
where the cord remained clamped during placenta expulsion.
In both studies, there were interventions from active
management of TSL in both groups. The results demonstrated
that the duration of TSL was significantly lower in
the experimental group (Shravage & Silpa 2007, Jongkolsiri
& Manotaya 2009).
There was also a statistically significant difference in the
mean amount of blood loss, and the loss was lower in the
experimental group. With respect to PPH, an incidence of
3% was found in the experimental group compared with the
10% found in the control group (Shravage & Silpa 2007). In
both studies, there was no need for blood transfusion; however,
Jongkolsiri and Manotaya (2009) documented a case of
manual removal of placenta in the control group, due to a
retained placenta with a TSL over 30 minutes. A recent
Cochrane systematic review (which included three randomised
controlled trials) corroborated these findings, concluding
that placental blood drainage in the management of TSL
reduced its average duration to about three minutes, with an
average blood loss of 77 ml. There were no differences registered
in the need for manual removal of placenta, blood
transfusion or risk of PPH (Soltani et al. 2011).
The limitations of the three studies are related to the possibility
of bias due to the reduced number of participants
and the precision of monitoring of lower blood loss (taking
into account the possibility of the presence of amniotic fluid
and rejection of blood loss on the floor and gowns). Placental
blood drainage seems to be a simple and safe strategy
for blood loss reduction in TSL, as it prevents bleeding
without increasing postpartum complications.
Linked with this technique, another important issue
arises, namely whether the active management of TSL
should include the early clamping and cutting of the umbilical
cord, taking into account the well-being of the mother
and newborn.
According to some authors (Van Rheenen, 2006, Hutton
2007 cited by McDonald & Middleton 2009), the timing
of clamping and cutting the umbilical cord is an integral
part of TSL, which may vary according to institutional
policy and practices of midwives and obstetricians. This practice is justified by the need to reduce the risk of PPH;
yet, it is contrary to recent WHO recommendations (2007)
of delayed cord clamping (three minutes after birth) to promote
foetal well-being. The delay in clamping the umbilical
cord for two to three minutes does not seem to increase the
risk of PPH and promotes increased levels of iron in the
newborn.
A recent Cochrane systematic review that included 11
randomised controlled trials compared early and late cord
clamping during TSL. In the five trials that studied this
hypothesis, no significant differences were found between
early and late clamping of the cord to prevent PPH.
Regarding neonatal outcomes, the review showed benefits
and risks of delayed umbilical cord clamping, which include
increased levels of iron up to six months of a child’s life,
increased risk of jaundice and the consequent need for
phototherapy (McDonald & Middleton 2009). A study by
Winter et al. (2007) found that 66–90% of hospitals in
Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain, Switzerland and the UK have policies of early cord
clamping and cutting, immediately after birth.
Given the analysis of the results of the similarly categorised
concepts, the joint use of the five aforementioned interventions
in TSL, to prevent PPH, can be considered part of
the integrative care used by midwives.