where TAit: total accruals of firm i for the year t, defined as thechange in non-cash current assets minus the change in currentliabilities excluding short-term debt, minus depreciation and amor-tisation. Ait−1: total assets of firm i at the beginning of year t.SALESit: Change in annual revenues of firm i in year t. NCASSETSit:Level of gross non-current assets of firm i in year t. CFOit: Cash flowfrom the operations of firm i in year t, calculated as the differencebetween the ordinary income before taxes and the total accrualsTAit. εit: error terms in the different expressions.Then, following Kasznik (1999), we control for measurementerrors using a performance adjusted method. We rank the discre-tionary accruals into percentile groups by their return on assets,assuming that the median discretionary accrual for each percentilegroup reflects measurement error. We then subtract the medianfrom each unadjusted discretionary accrual in that percentile.Therefore, the proxy for discretionary accruals is the differencebetween the original discretionary accruals and the median dis-cretionary accruals for each percentile.