Matsuzawa (1989) devised a method for calculating the cost of congestion, still using the "actual
time/free-flowing traffic time" definition, and applied it to the Osaka conurbation (2.6 million population,
travelling 12,100,000 vehicle-km a day), leading to figures ranging from 250 to 1000 million yen (1985
value) a day, according to the assumptions, or from 20 to 80 yen per kilometre travelled.