Main article: Healthcare in Russia
The Russian Constitution guarantees free, universal health care for all its citizens.[253] In practice, however, free health care is partially restricted because of mandatory registration.[254] While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world on a per capita basis,[255] since the dissolution of the Soviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes;[256] the trend has been reversed only in the recent years, with average life expectancy having increased 2.4 years for males and 1.4 years for females between 2006–09.[222]
As of 2009, the average life expectancy in Russia was 62.77 years for males and 74.67 years for females.[257] The biggest factor contributing to the relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males. Deaths mostly occur because of preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crime).[222] As a result of the large gender difference in life expectancy, and also because of the lasting effect of high casualties in World War II, the gender imbalance remains to this day; there are 0.859 males to every female.[88]