They should think about as they practice. Instruction about one idea at a time is especially effective when the teacher then provides feedback to the children about the way they are ( or are not )moving quickly to the ball (i.e., feedback that is congruent with the instruction)( chapter 10).
Obviously in some instances, more than one idea can be successfully explained, especially when one is a review of past lessons. Too often, however, we provide the children with far more information than they can process-even if they want to remember it all.
2. Keep it Brief
Another advantage of explaining one idea at a time is that the instruction can be brief. Children are far more willing to listen when they know an explanation will be quick and they can return to activity.
In keeping with this guideline, it is important to avoid falling into the habit of repeating the same explanation two or three times. Beginning teachers are particularly prone to this habit as they try to find words to enhance their explanation. This is because, in many instances, they haven’t talked about the ideas they are attempting to teach-the content is new to them as a teacher. Consequently, some children tend to hear the first explanation and not bother to listen to the next one; conversely, some may prefer to wait until the second or third explanation because they know the idea will be explained more than once.
“UH’S . . . , UM’S . . . , OK’S,
AND YOU KNOW’S’’
It’ s common for teachers, especially early in their careers when they are unaccustomed to public speaking and are presenting information for the first time, to use certain phrases or words that are distracting to listeners. The most common are “uh . . . , “ ” um . . . , “” OK, “and “you know ,” but there are others that also unknowingly creep into our vocabulary. There is a reason for using these words-they allow us to stall for time as we think about what we want to say next. It’s natural. It’s also distracting. One of the quickest ways to discover these habits is to audio – or video tape a lesson to determine if any of these habits have crept into our instruction. If they have, simply becoming aware of them is often enough to eliminate them from our speech. In some cases, however, a habit has become so ingrained that it won’t go away. Fortunately, there is an effective technique for eliminating these habits. Select a class you work well with. Ask them to help you
3. Reminder Word or Phrase
Our explanations, of necessity, require a number of words. When we can provide the children with a reminder word or phrase, it helps them recall the idea more easily (Melville, 1988). It presents them with an easily remembered “mind picture.” For example, the cue often used with beginners when striking a ball with a racket is that the side is ideally facing the target when the ball is struck. Designating the word side as the reminder word serves as a shortcut to remembering this concept. This also makes it easier for the teacher to provide feedback because she can simply say “side” as a reminder to try to turn the side toward the target. While this may not seem important at the beginning of the day, after seven or eight classes, a shortcut like this can be very helpful (Figure 6.1).
At times these reminder words are not easy to create. Many times the children can help identify a word or phrase to serve as a reminder. For example, the refinement of bending the knees, hips, and ankles when landing from a jump was identified by children as “squashing” the landing.
4. Based on Observation
As explained previously, some classes will have need different from those of others. Effective teachers have the ability to observe a class, reflect on the students’ movement, and then select the appropriate cue from their repertoire of understanding about that skill and how it is learned, to determine the content of the instruction that will be most beneficial to children at that skill level.
In teaching dribbling with the hands, for example, the following cues (chapter 8) might be helpful:
- Use the “finger pads.”
- Push, rather than slap, the ball.
- Look away from the ball.
- Dribble low.
- Keep the ball on the side away from the opponent.
If the children are beginners, the first two or three cues might be emphasized. More skillful children would benefit from the latter two cues. The decision about which cue or refinement to emphasize (chapter 9) is based on the teacher’s observation (chapter 8) and then combined with his knowledge of what cues the children will find most beneficial.
THE KNUCKLE OF THE BIG TOE
In class today one of our soccer players was trying to help another student with a soccer style kick for distance. The player didn’t want him to use the inside of his foot either. In attempting to describe that location on the foot (actually the joint of the first metatarsal), one of the students came up with the term the knuckle of your big toe. Perhaps not quite accurate, but easy to remember.
Motor skills Verbal cues
Running
-Elbows bent, arms close to body, not flying out to the sides
-Feet straight, avoiding flat-footed landing
Jumping
-Horizontal jump using a preparatory movement that includes flexion of both knees and arms extended behind the body
-Horizontal jump in which arms are forcefully extended forward and upward reaching full extension above the head
Ball handling
-Dribbling by pushing with the fingers, not slapping
-catching with eyes on the ball, arms extended in preparation, and elbows bending to absorb force
-Fielding a ground ball by getting in front of the ball with hands down
-Catching self-tossed balls on the finger tips (not the palms)
“Steam engines”
“Heel-toe, straight we go”
“Make a low table”
“Swing for the sky”
“Pet the kitty”
“Look, reach, give”
“Tunnel with bars”
“Spiders playing catch”
Figure 6.1 Sample verbal cues for motor skills. (Reprinted by permission from Melville, 1988.)
The ability to observe a class and make these decisions is not a skill that comes easily. As with many of the pedagogical skills, it takes time and practice. In the beginning it is helpful to have several cues in mind and then scan the class to determine which of the refinements will benefit the class. If the majority of the students are gripping their rackets correctly, then it is of little use to explain the grip to the entire class. It can be done individually. In contrast, if the children are swinging their rackets in uneven pathways causing them to miss or mis-hit the ball, then time needs to be spent on their swing pathways. This is a decision best made through observation, however.
VIDEOTAPE ANALYSIS
Watch one of your videotaped lessons (or a lesson on the companion videotape you purchased along with this text). Locate sections where the teacher is instructing the children. Answer the following questions about those segments of the tape:
- Was the instruction clear and understandable to the children?
- Were the instruction repeated? Or were they stated clearly and succinctly one time only?
- If a cue was provided, was it stated clearly? Were several cues described at the same time so that it was hard to know which cue to focus on?
- Was the task or activity clear to the children? Was it demonstrated to them? Did it need to be?
If you are with a group watching a lesson, find an instruction segment on the videotape. Play it once. Then have everyone write down the key idea (only one!) of the instruction –the idea that you would think about if you were a child in the class. When everyone in your group has finished, pass the key ideas to one another. If the instruction was clear, all will have written the same key idea. If it wasn’t clear, however, there will be many different cues written on the paper.
DEMONSTRATING
Demonstrating is typically part of instruction-the part where we show the movement rather than simply talking about it. This is especially important for young children, who may have difficulty understanding some of the concepts. It is also crucial in many schools that have classes with non-English-speaking or hearing-impaired children.
Much of our teaching involves using words to describe how to per from motor skills. Words are helpful but are not as efficient as actually demonstrating the skill. The same is true for music or art. Word are helpful, but hearing a symphony or viewing a portrait is far more descriptive than trying to create a verbal explanation. Once we have the idea, words are effective in focusing our attention on particular aspects, phases, or sequences of a movement. As with instruction, there are several components that together compose a successful demonstration (Rink & Werner, 1987).
Location for Demonstrating
The first component is simply common sense. Stand in a location in which all of the children can see you easily. If you’re outside, be sure to stand so the sun isn’t in the children’s eyes. Be sure that you can also see all of the children. This is obvious, yet from time to time it’s forgotten. There’s really not much more one can write about this aspect-it’s simply a matter of trying to be aware of the children and what they are seeing and hearing.
Whole/Part
Generally it seems that the first demonstration should be the entire whole movement. If the skill is kicking, the teacher (or a skilled student) demonstrates the actual kick. The next phase of the demonstration focuses on the part (e.g., showing the placement of the nonkicking foot next to the ball). This may or may not be followed by another whole demonstration. It’s important that the criti
They should think about as they practice. Instruction about one idea at a time is especially effective when the teacher then provides feedback to the children about the way they are ( or are not )moving quickly to the ball (i.e., feedback that is congruent with the instruction)( chapter 10).
Obviously in some instances, more than one idea can be successfully explained, especially when one is a review of past lessons. Too often, however, we provide the children with far more information than they can process-even if they want to remember it all.
2. Keep it Brief
Another advantage of explaining one idea at a time is that the instruction can be brief. Children are far more willing to listen when they know an explanation will be quick and they can return to activity.
In keeping with this guideline, it is important to avoid falling into the habit of repeating the same explanation two or three times. Beginning teachers are particularly prone to this habit as they try to find words to enhance their explanation. This is because, in many instances, they haven’t talked about the ideas they are attempting to teach-the content is new to them as a teacher. Consequently, some children tend to hear the first explanation and not bother to listen to the next one; conversely, some may prefer to wait until the second or third explanation because they know the idea will be explained more than once.
“UH’S . . . , UM’S . . . , OK’S,
AND YOU KNOW’S’’
It’ s common for teachers, especially early in their careers when they are unaccustomed to public speaking and are presenting information for the first time, to use certain phrases or words that are distracting to listeners. The most common are “uh . . . , “ ” um . . . , “” OK, “and “you know ,” but there are others that also unknowingly creep into our vocabulary. There is a reason for using these words-they allow us to stall for time as we think about what we want to say next. It’s natural. It’s also distracting. One of the quickest ways to discover these habits is to audio – or video tape a lesson to determine if any of these habits have crept into our instruction. If they have, simply becoming aware of them is often enough to eliminate them from our speech. In some cases, however, a habit has become so ingrained that it won’t go away. Fortunately, there is an effective technique for eliminating these habits. Select a class you work well with. Ask them to help you
3. Reminder Word or Phrase
Our explanations, of necessity, require a number of words. When we can provide the children with a reminder word or phrase, it helps them recall the idea more easily (Melville, 1988). It presents them with an easily remembered “mind picture.” For example, the cue often used with beginners when striking a ball with a racket is that the side is ideally facing the target when the ball is struck. Designating the word side as the reminder word serves as a shortcut to remembering this concept. This also makes it easier for the teacher to provide feedback because she can simply say “side” as a reminder to try to turn the side toward the target. While this may not seem important at the beginning of the day, after seven or eight classes, a shortcut like this can be very helpful (Figure 6.1).
At times these reminder words are not easy to create. Many times the children can help identify a word or phrase to serve as a reminder. For example, the refinement of bending the knees, hips, and ankles when landing from a jump was identified by children as “squashing” the landing.
4. Based on Observation
As explained previously, some classes will have need different from those of others. Effective teachers have the ability to observe a class, reflect on the students’ movement, and then select the appropriate cue from their repertoire of understanding about that skill and how it is learned, to determine the content of the instruction that will be most beneficial to children at that skill level.
In teaching dribbling with the hands, for example, the following cues (chapter 8) might be helpful:
- Use the “finger pads.”
- Push, rather than slap, the ball.
- Look away from the ball.
- Dribble low.
- Keep the ball on the side away from the opponent.
If the children are beginners, the first two or three cues might be emphasized. More skillful children would benefit from the latter two cues. The decision about which cue or refinement to emphasize (chapter 9) is based on the teacher’s observation (chapter 8) and then combined with his knowledge of what cues the children will find most beneficial.
THE KNUCKLE OF THE BIG TOE
In class today one of our soccer players was trying to help another student with a soccer style kick for distance. The player didn’t want him to use the inside of his foot either. In attempting to describe that location on the foot (actually the joint of the first metatarsal), one of the students came up with the term the knuckle of your big toe. Perhaps not quite accurate, but easy to remember.
Motor skills Verbal cues
Running
-Elbows bent, arms close to body, not flying out to the sides
-Feet straight, avoiding flat-footed landing
Jumping
-Horizontal jump using a preparatory movement that includes flexion of both knees and arms extended behind the body
-Horizontal jump in which arms are forcefully extended forward and upward reaching full extension above the head
Ball handling
-Dribbling by pushing with the fingers, not slapping
-catching with eyes on the ball, arms extended in preparation, and elbows bending to absorb force
-Fielding a ground ball by getting in front of the ball with hands down
-Catching self-tossed balls on the finger tips (not the palms)
“Steam engines”
“Heel-toe, straight we go”
“Make a low table”
“Swing for the sky”
“Pet the kitty”
“Look, reach, give”
“Tunnel with bars”
“Spiders playing catch”
Figure 6.1 Sample verbal cues for motor skills. (Reprinted by permission from Melville, 1988.)
The ability to observe a class and make these decisions is not a skill that comes easily. As with many of the pedagogical skills, it takes time and practice. In the beginning it is helpful to have several cues in mind and then scan the class to determine which of the refinements will benefit the class. If the majority of the students are gripping their rackets correctly, then it is of little use to explain the grip to the entire class. It can be done individually. In contrast, if the children are swinging their rackets in uneven pathways causing them to miss or mis-hit the ball, then time needs to be spent on their swing pathways. This is a decision best made through observation, however.
VIDEOTAPE ANALYSIS
Watch one of your videotaped lessons (or a lesson on the companion videotape you purchased along with this text). Locate sections where the teacher is instructing the children. Answer the following questions about those segments of the tape:
- Was the instruction clear and understandable to the children?
- Were the instruction repeated? Or were they stated clearly and succinctly one time only?
- If a cue was provided, was it stated clearly? Were several cues described at the same time so that it was hard to know which cue to focus on?
- Was the task or activity clear to the children? Was it demonstrated to them? Did it need to be?
If you are with a group watching a lesson, find an instruction segment on the videotape. Play it once. Then have everyone write down the key idea (only one!) of the instruction –the idea that you would think about if you were a child in the class. When everyone in your group has finished, pass the key ideas to one another. If the instruction was clear, all will have written the same key idea. If it wasn’t clear, however, there will be many different cues written on the paper.
DEMONSTRATING
Demonstrating is typically part of instruction-the part where we show the movement rather than simply talking about it. This is especially important for young children, who may have difficulty understanding some of the concepts. It is also crucial in many schools that have classes with non-English-speaking or hearing-impaired children.
Much of our teaching involves using words to describe how to per from motor skills. Words are helpful but are not as efficient as actually demonstrating the skill. The same is true for music or art. Word are helpful, but hearing a symphony or viewing a portrait is far more descriptive than trying to create a verbal explanation. Once we have the idea, words are effective in focusing our attention on particular aspects, phases, or sequences of a movement. As with instruction, there are several components that together compose a successful demonstration (Rink & Werner, 1987).
Location for Demonstrating
The first component is simply common sense. Stand in a location in which all of the children can see you easily. If you’re outside, be sure to stand so the sun isn’t in the children’s eyes. Be sure that you can also see all of the children. This is obvious, yet from time to time it’s forgotten. There’s really not much more one can write about this aspect-it’s simply a matter of trying to be aware of the children and what they are seeing and hearing.
Whole/Part
Generally it seems that the first demonstration should be the entire whole movement. If the skill is kicking, the teacher (or a skilled student) demonstrates the actual kick. The next phase of the demonstration focuses on the part (e.g., showing the placement of the nonkicking foot next to the ball). This may or may not be followed by another whole demonstration. It’s important that the criti
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