and reduced penetration intensifies the effects of those other mechanisms. Generally, it is a reduced uptake of insecticide due to modifications in the insect’s cuticle that prevent or slow the absorption or penetration of insecticides. Examples of reduced penetration mechanisms have suggested correlation between cuticle thickness and pyrethroid resistance in A. funestus due to two genes that encode
cuticular proteins that are upregulated in pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes. Behavioural and cuticular resistance mechanisms are rarer than the other mechanisms and are perceived by most experts to be a lesser threat than chemical resistance