RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
Corn-ethanol biofuel production in the United States is expanding rapidly in response to a sudden rise in petroleum prices and support- ive federal subsidies. From a base of 12.9 billion liters (3.4 billion gallons [bg]) from 81 facilities in 2004, annual production capacity increased to 29.9 billion liters (7.9 bg) from 139 biorefineries in January 2008 (RFA 2008). With an additional 20.8 billion liters (5.5 bg) of capacity from 61 fa- cilities currently under construction, total annual production potential will likely reach 50.7 billion liters (13.4 bg) within 1–2 years, with facilities built since 2004 representing 75% of production capacity. This level of production is ahead of the mandated grain-based ethanol production sched- ule in the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, which peaks at 57 billion liters (15 bg) in 2015 (U.S. Congress 2007). At this level of production, corn-ethanol will replace about 10% of total U.S. gasoline use on a volu- metric basis and nearly 17% of gasoline derived from imported oil.
Biofuels have been justified and supported by federal subsidies largely on the basis of two as- sumptions about the public goods that result from their use, namely, (1) that they reduce depen- dence on imported oil, and (2) that they re- duce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon dioxide [CO2], methane [CH4], and nitrous ox- ide [N2O]) when they replace petroleum-derived gasoline or diesel transportation fuels.1 In the case of corn-ethanol, however, several recent re- ports estimate a relatively small net energy ra- tio (NER) and GHG emissions reduction com- pared to gasoline (Farrell et al. 2006; Wang et al.
2007) or a net increase in GHG emissions when both direct and indirect emissions are considered (Searchinger et al. 2008). These studies rely on estimates of energy efficiencies in older ethanol plants that were built before the recent invest- ment boom in new ethanol biorefineries that ini- tiated production on or after January 2005. These recently built facilities now represent about 60% of total ethanol production and will account for 75% by the end of 2009.
These newer biorefineries have increased en- ergy efficiency and reduced GHG emissions through the use of improved technologies, such as
2 Journal of Industrial Ecology
thermocompressors for condensing steam and in- creasing heat reuse; thermal oxidizers for combus- tion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and waste heat recovery; and raw-starch hydrolysis, which reduces heat requirements during fermen- tation. Likewise, a large number of new biore- fineries are located in close proximity to cattle feeding or dairy operations, because the high- est value use of coproduct distillers grains is for cattle feed, compared to their value in poul- try or swine rations (Klopfenstein et al. 2008). Close proximity to livestock feeding operations means that biorefineries do not need to dry dis- tillers grains to facilitate long-distance transport to livestock feeding sites, which saves energy and reduces GHG emissions. Corn yields also have been increasing steadily at 114 kg ha−1 (1.8 bu ac−1) due to improvements in both crop genetics and agronomic management prac- tices (Duvick and Cassman 1999; Cassman and Liska 2007). For example, nitrogen fertilizer ef- ficiency, estimated as the increase in grain yield due to applied nitrogen, has increased by 36% since 1980 (Cassman et al. 2002), and nitro- gen fertilizer accounts for a large portion of en- ergy inputs and GHG emissions in corn pro- duction (Adviento-Borbe et al. 2007). Similarly, the proportion of farmers adopting conservation tillage practices that reduce diesel fuel use has risen from 26% in 1990 to 41% in 2004 (CTIC
2004).
The degree to which recent technological im- provements in crop production, ethanol biore- fining, and coproduct utilization affect life cycle GHG emissions and net energy yield (NEY) of corn-ethanol systems has not been thoroughly evaluated. Widespread concerns about the im- pact of corn-ethanol on GHG emissions and its potential to replace petroleum-based transporta- tion fuels require such updates. For example, the 2007 EISA mandates that life cycle GHG emis- sions of corn-ethanol, cellulosic ethanol, and ad- vanced biofuels achieve 20%, 60%, and 50% GHG emissions reductions relative to gasoline, respectively (US Congress 2007). California is currently in the process of developing regula- tions to implement a low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS), with the goal of reducing GHG emis- sions from motor fuels by 10% by 2020 com- paredtopresent levels (Arons et al. 2007). Global
RESEARCH AND ANALYSISIntroductionCorn-ethanol biofuel production in the United States is expanding rapidly in response to a sudden rise in petroleum prices and support- ive federal subsidies. From a base of 12.9 billion liters (3.4 billion gallons [bg]) from 81 facilities in 2004, annual production capacity increased to 29.9 billion liters (7.9 bg) from 139 biorefineries in January 2008 (RFA 2008). With an additional 20.8 billion liters (5.5 bg) of capacity from 61 fa- cilities currently under construction, total annual production potential will likely reach 50.7 billion liters (13.4 bg) within 1–2 years, with facilities built since 2004 representing 75% of production capacity. This level of production is ahead of the mandated grain-based ethanol production sched- ule in the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, which peaks at 57 billion liters (15 bg) in 2015 (U.S. Congress 2007). At this level of production, corn-ethanol will replace about 10% of total U.S. gasoline use on a volu- metric basis and nearly 17% of gasoline derived from imported oil.Biofuels have been justified and supported by federal subsidies largely on the basis of two as- sumptions about the public goods that result from their use, namely, (1) that they reduce depen- dence on imported oil, and (2) that they re- duce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon dioxide [CO2], methane [CH4], and nitrous ox- ide [N2O]) when they replace petroleum-derived gasoline or diesel transportation fuels.1 In the case of corn-ethanol, however, several recent re- ports estimate a relatively small net energy ra- tio (NER) and GHG emissions reduction com- pared to gasoline (Farrell et al. 2006; Wang et al.2007) or a net increase in GHG emissions when both direct and indirect emissions are considered (Searchinger et al. 2008). These studies rely on estimates of energy efficiencies in older ethanol plants that were built before the recent invest- ment boom in new ethanol biorefineries that ini- tiated production on or after January 2005. These recently built facilities now represent about 60% of total ethanol production and will account for 75% by the end of 2009.These newer biorefineries have increased en- ergy efficiency and reduced GHG emissions through the use of improved technologies, such as2 Journal of Industrial Ecologythermocompressors for condensing steam and in- creasing heat reuse; thermal oxidizers for combus- tion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and waste heat recovery; and raw-starch hydrolysis, which reduces heat requirements during fermen- tation. Likewise, a large number of new biore- fineries are located in close proximity to cattle feeding or dairy operations, because the high- est value use of coproduct distillers grains is for cattle feed, compared to their value in poul- try or swine rations (Klopfenstein et al. 2008). Close proximity to livestock feeding operations means that biorefineries do not need to dry dis- tillers grains to facilitate long-distance transport to livestock feeding sites, which saves energy and reduces GHG emissions. Corn yields also have been increasing steadily at 114 kg ha−1 (1.8 bu ac−1) due to improvements in both crop genetics and agronomic management prac- tices (Duvick and Cassman 1999; Cassman and Liska 2007). For example, nitrogen fertilizer ef- ficiency, estimated as the increase in grain yield due to applied nitrogen, has increased by 36% since 1980 (Cassman et al. 2002), and nitro- gen fertilizer accounts for a large portion of en- ergy inputs and GHG emissions in corn pro- duction (Adviento-Borbe et al. 2007). Similarly, the proportion of farmers adopting conservation tillage practices that reduce diesel fuel use has risen from 26% in 1990 to 41% in 2004 (CTIC2004).The degree to which recent technological im- provements in crop production, ethanol biore- fining, and coproduct utilization affect life cycle GHG emissions and net energy yield (NEY) of corn-ethanol systems has not been thoroughly evaluated. Widespread concerns about the im- pact of corn-ethanol on GHG emissions and its potential to replace petroleum-based transporta- tion fuels require such updates. For example, the 2007 EISA mandates that life cycle GHG emis- sions of corn-ethanol, cellulosic ethanol, and ad- vanced biofuels achieve 20%, 60%, and 50% GHG emissions reductions relative to gasoline, respectively (US Congress 2007). California is currently in the process of developing regula- tions to implement a low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS), with the goal of reducing GHG emis- sions from motor fuels by 10% by 2020 com- paredtopresent levels (Arons et al. 2007). Global
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RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
Corn-ethanol biofuel production in the United States is expanding rapidly in response to a sudden rise in petroleum prices and support- ive federal subsidies. From a base of 12.9 billion liters (3.4 billion gallons [bg]) from 81 facilities in 2004, annual production capacity increased to 29.9 billion liters (7.9 bg) from 139 biorefineries in January 2008 (RFA 2008). With an additional 20.8 billion liters (5.5 bg) of capacity from 61 fa- cilities currently under construction, total annual production potential will likely reach 50.7 billion liters (13.4 bg) within 1–2 years, with facilities built since 2004 representing 75% of production capacity. This level of production is ahead of the mandated grain-based ethanol production sched- ule in the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, which peaks at 57 billion liters (15 bg) in 2015 (U.S. Congress 2007). At this level of production, corn-ethanol will replace about 10% of total U.S. gasoline use on a volu- metric basis and nearly 17% of gasoline derived from imported oil.
Biofuels have been justified and supported by federal subsidies largely on the basis of two as- sumptions about the public goods that result from their use, namely, (1) that they reduce depen- dence on imported oil, and (2) that they re- duce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon dioxide [CO2], methane [CH4], and nitrous ox- ide [N2O]) when they replace petroleum-derived gasoline or diesel transportation fuels.1 In the case of corn-ethanol, however, several recent re- ports estimate a relatively small net energy ra- tio (NER) and GHG emissions reduction com- pared to gasoline (Farrell et al. 2006; Wang et al.
2007) or a net increase in GHG emissions when both direct and indirect emissions are considered (Searchinger et al. 2008). These studies rely on estimates of energy efficiencies in older ethanol plants that were built before the recent invest- ment boom in new ethanol biorefineries that ini- tiated production on or after January 2005. These recently built facilities now represent about 60% of total ethanol production and will account for 75% by the end of 2009.
These newer biorefineries have increased en- ergy efficiency and reduced GHG emissions through the use of improved technologies, such as
2 Journal of Industrial Ecology
thermocompressors for condensing steam and in- creasing heat reuse; thermal oxidizers for combus- tion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and waste heat recovery; and raw-starch hydrolysis, which reduces heat requirements during fermen- tation. Likewise, a large number of new biore- fineries are located in close proximity to cattle feeding or dairy operations, because the high- est value use of coproduct distillers grains is for cattle feed, compared to their value in poul- try or swine rations (Klopfenstein et al. 2008). Close proximity to livestock feeding operations means that biorefineries do not need to dry dis- tillers grains to facilitate long-distance transport to livestock feeding sites, which saves energy and reduces GHG emissions. Corn yields also have been increasing steadily at 114 kg ha−1 (1.8 bu ac−1) due to improvements in both crop genetics and agronomic management prac- tices (Duvick and Cassman 1999; Cassman and Liska 2007). For example, nitrogen fertilizer ef- ficiency, estimated as the increase in grain yield due to applied nitrogen, has increased by 36% since 1980 (Cassman et al. 2002), and nitro- gen fertilizer accounts for a large portion of en- ergy inputs and GHG emissions in corn pro- duction (Adviento-Borbe et al. 2007). Similarly, the proportion of farmers adopting conservation tillage practices that reduce diesel fuel use has risen from 26% in 1990 to 41% in 2004 (CTIC
2004).
The degree to which recent technological im- provements in crop production, ethanol biore- fining, and coproduct utilization affect life cycle GHG emissions and net energy yield (NEY) of corn-ethanol systems has not been thoroughly evaluated. Widespread concerns about the im- pact of corn-ethanol on GHG emissions and its potential to replace petroleum-based transporta- tion fuels require such updates. For example, the 2007 EISA mandates that life cycle GHG emis- sions of corn-ethanol, cellulosic ethanol, and ad- vanced biofuels achieve 20%, 60%, and 50% GHG emissions reductions relative to gasoline, respectively (US Congress 2007). California is currently in the process of developing regula- tions to implement a low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS), with the goal of reducing GHG emis- sions from motor fuels by 10% by 2020 com- paredtopresent levels (Arons et al. 2007). Global
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