Achievements in Public Health, 1900-1999: Decline in Deaths from Heart Disease and Stroke -- United States, 1900-1999
Heart disease has been the leading cause of death in the United States since 1921, and stroke has been the third leading cause since 1938 (1); together they account for approximately 40% of all deaths. Since 1950, age-adjusted death rates from cardiovascular disease (CVD) have declined 60%, representing one of the most important public health achievements of the 20th century. This report summarizes the temporal trends in CVD, advances in the understanding of risk factors for CVD, development of prevention interventions to reduce these risks, and improvements in therapy for persons who develop CVD.
Decline in CVD Death Rates
Age-adjusted death rates per 100,000 persons (standardized to the 1940 U.S. population) for diseases of the heart (i.e., coronary heart disease, hypertensive heart disease, and rheumatic heart disease) have decreased from a peak of 307.4 in 1950 to 134.6 in 1996, an overall decline of 56% (1) (Figure 1). Age-adjusted death rates for coronary heart disease (the major form of CVD contributing to mortality) continued to increase into the 1960s, then declined. In 1996, 621,000 fewer deaths occurred from coronary heart disease than would have been expected had the rate remained at its 1963 peak (1).
Age-adjusted death rates for stroke have declined steadily since the beginning of the century. Since 1950, stroke rates have declined 70%, from 88.8 in 1950 to 26.5 in 1996. Total age-adjusted CVD death rates have declined 60% since 1950 and accounted for approximately 73% of the decline in all causes of deaths during the same period (1).
Disease Epidemiology
Intensive investigation into the CVD epidemic largely began in the 1940s following World War II, although causal hypotheses about CVD and recognition of geographic differences in disease rates occurred earlier (2-4). Landmark epidemiologic investigations, including the cross-country comparisons of Ancel Keys (5) (see box) and the Framingham Heart Study (6), established the major risk factors of high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, and smoking and dietary factors (particularly dietary cholesterol, fat, and sodium). The risk factor concept--that particular biologic, lifestyle, and social conditions were associated with increased risk for disease--developed out of CVD epidemiology (3,4). In addition to the major risk factors (i.e., high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and smoking), other important factors include socioeconomic status, obesity, and physical inactivity (7). Striking regional differences were noted particularly for stroke mortality, with the highest rates observed in the southeastern United States (1). Cross-national and cross-cultural studies highlighted the importance of social, cultural, and environmental factors in the development of CVD.
Coronary heart disease and stroke, the two major causes of CVD-related mortality, are not influenced to the same degree by the recognized risk factors. For example, elevated blood cholesterol is a major risk factor for coronary heart disease, and hypertension is the major risk factor for stroke. Physical activity, smoking cessation, and a healthy diet, which can lower the risk for heart disease, also can help lower the risk for stroke (8).
Advances in Prevention
Early intervention studies in the 1960s sought to establish whether lowering risk factor levels would reduce risk for CVD (2-4). During the 1970s and 1980s, along with numerous clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of antihypertensive and lipid-lowering drugs, community trials sought to reduce risk at the community level (9). Public health interventions to reduce CVD have benefitted from a combination of the "high risk" approach--aimed at persons with increased risk for CVD--and the population-wide approach--aimed at lowering risk for the entire community (10). National programs that combine these complementary approaches and that are aimed at health-care providers, patients, and the general public include the National High Blood Pressure Education Program (11), initiated in 1972, and the National Cholesterol Education Program, initiated in 1985 (12). Although earlier CDC community demonstration projects focused on cardiovascular health (9), CDC established its National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion in 1989, with a high priority of promoting cardiovascular health.
Factors Contributing to the Decline in CVD Deaths
Reasons for the declines in heart disease and stroke may vary by period and across region or socioeconomic groups (e.g., age, sex, and racial/ethnic groups). Prevention efforts and improvements in early detection, treatment, and care have resulted in a number of beneficial trends (Table 1), which may have contributed to declines in heart disease and stroke. These trends include
a decline in cigarette smoking among adults aged greater than or equal to 18 years from approximately 42% in 1965 to 25% in 1995 (13). Substantial public health efforts to reduce tobacco use began soon after recognition of the association between smoking and CVD and between smoking and cancer and the first Surgeon General's report on smoking and health published in 1964.
a decrease in mean blood pressure levels in the U.S. population (11,13,14).
an increase in the percentage of persons with hypertension who have the condition treated and controlled (11,13,14).
a decrease in mean blood cholesterol levels (12-14).
changes in the U.S. diet. Data based on surveys of food supply suggest that consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol has decreased since 1909 (15). Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination surveys suggest that decreases in the percentage of calories from dietary fat and the levels of dietary cholesterol coincide with decreases in blood cholesterol levels (16).
improvements in medical care, including advances in diagnosing and treating heart disease and stroke, development of effective medications for treatment of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, greater numbers of specialists and health-care providers focusing on CVD, an increase in emergency medical services for heart attack and stroke, and an increase in coronary-care units (13,17). These developments have contributed to lower case-fatality rates, lengthened survival times, and shorter hospital stays for persons with CVD (1,17).
Challenges for the 21st Century
Despite remarkable progress, heart disease and stroke remain leading causes of disability and death. Estimated costs for morbidity and mortality from CVD, including health expenditures and lost productivity, are expected to be $286.5 billion in 1999 (18). In addition, the overall declines in heart disease and stroke mortality mask important differences in rates of decline by race/ethnicity, sex, socioeconomic status, and geographic region. During 1985-1996, for example, heart disease age-adjusted mortality declined 29% among white men, but only 10% among American Indian/ Alaskan Native women (13). Persons of lower socioeconomic status have higher mortality, morbidity, and risk factor levels for heart disease and stroke than persons of higher socioeconomic status (13,19). In addition, the social class gap in heart disease deaths may be increasing as the rates of heart disease decline faster among higher social classes (19). Geographically, declines in heart disease deaths did not occur at the same time for all communities. Areas with poorer socioeconomic profiles were more likely to experience a later onset of the decline of heart disease (19).
Public health programs at the state level for heart disease and stroke have been limited. In fiscal year 1999, through a new program, CDC funded 11 states with the highest CVD mortality rates to plan, develop, and implement state-based efforts for CVD prevention. In addition to activities such as surveillance, these programs will emphasize policy and environmental interventions, both social and physical, aimed at sustaining positive health behavior change.
Although many trends have been positive, trends for some important indicators have not improved substantially, have leveled off, or are reversing. For example, approximately 70% of persons with hypertension do not have the condition controlled at levels below 140/90 mm Hg, and death rates for stroke have not declined in recent years (1,11,13). Heart failure has emerged as a health concern for older adults (20), and adults who survive a myocardial infarction or other hypertension-related diseases remain at increased risk for heart failure. In addition, the prevalence of obesity has increased among both children and adults in the United States (13).
Major public health challenges for the 21st century include
reducing risk factor levels and preventing the development of adverse risk factors. Continued research is needed to understand the determinants (social, psychological, environmental, physiologic, and genetic) of CVD risk factors.
reducing the racial/ethnic disparities in heart disease and stroke mortality.
increasing the ability to reach underserved groups with appropriate and effective public health messages.
promoting policy and environmental strategies that enhance healthy behavior.
determining the relation between genetics and disease. The associations of genetic variants with CVD, and especially the interplay between genetic and environmental factors, may play increasingly important roles in the nation's efforts to prevent CVD.
identifying new or emerging risk factors and determining their potential for public health intervention. New or emerging risk factors that have been associated with CVD include elevated levels of total homocyst(e)ine, fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein, and infectious agents such as Helicobacter pylori and Chlamydia pneumoniae.
focusing on secondary prevention and disability. An aging U.S. population and an inc
ความสำเร็จในการสาธารณสุข 1900-1999: ลดลงเสียชีวิตจากโรคหัวใจและโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง - สหรัฐอเมริกา 1900-1999โรคหัวใจแล้วสาเหตุของการเสียชีวิตในสหรัฐอเมริกาตั้งแต่ 1921 และจังหวะได้สาเหตุที่สามพ.ศ. 1938 (1); ร่วมกันพวกเขาบัญชีประมาณ 40% ของการตายทั้งหมด ตั้งแต่ปี 1950 ปรับอายุอัตราตายจากโรคหัวใจและหลอดเลือด (เกี่ยวกับได้ปฏิเสธ 60% แทนความสำเร็จสาธารณสุขที่สำคัญที่สุดของศตวรรษ 20 อย่างใดอย่างหนึ่ง รายงานนี้สรุปขมับแนวโน้มผิว CVD ความก้าวหน้าในความเข้าใจของปัจจัยเสี่ยงสำหรับผิว CVD พัฒนามาตรการป้องกันเพื่อลดความเสี่ยงเหล่านี้ และปรับปรุงในการบำบัดสำหรับผู้พัฒนาผิว CVDลดลงในอัตราตายผิว CVDปรับอายุตายอัตราต่อ 100000 คน (มาตรฐานการประชากรสหรัฐฯ 1940) สำหรับโรคหัวใจ (เช่น โรค hypertensive โรคหัวใจ และโรคหัวใจรูมาติก) ได้ลดลงจากจุดสูงสุดของ 307.4 ในปี 1950 การ 134.6 1996 ปฏิเสธการรวม 56% (1) (รูปที่ 1) ปรับอายุอัตราตายสำหรับโรค (ฟอร์มหลักของผิว CVD ที่เอื้อต่อการตาย) ยังคงเพิ่มขึ้นในปี 1960 แล้วปฏิเสธ ในปี 1996, 621,000 ตายน้อยเกิดจากโรคมากกว่าจะได้คาดว่า มีอัตรายังคงอยู่ในจุดสูงสุดของ 1963 (1)มีปฏิเสธปรับอายุอัตราตายในจังหวะอย่างต่อเนื่องตั้งแต่ต้นศตวรรษ ตั้งแต่ปี 1950 อัตราจังหวะได้ปฏิเสธ 70%, 88.8 ในปี 1950 ถึง 26.5 ในปี 1996 ปรับอายุผิว CVD ตายค่าได้ปฏิเสธ 60% ตั้งแต่ปี 1950 และคิดเป็นประมาณ 73% ของสาเหตุทั้งหมดตายในช่วงเวลาเดียวกัน (1) ลดลงระบาดวิทยาของโรคตรวจสอบเร่งรัดเป็นโรคระบาดผิว CVD ส่วนใหญ่เริ่มขึ้นในทศวรรษ 1940 โดยต่อไปนี้สงครามโลก แต่สมมุติฐานเชิงสาเหตุเกี่ยวกับผิว CVD และการรับรู้ความแตกต่างทางภูมิศาสตร์ในอัตราโรคเกิดขึ้นก่อนหน้านี้ (2-4) แลนด์มาร์ค epidemiologic ตรวจสอบ รวมทั้งเปรียบเทียบครอสคันทรีแป้น Ancel (5) (ดูกล่อง) และการศึกษา Framingham หัวใจ (6), ก่อตั้งปัจจัยเสี่ยงสำคัญของไขมันในเลือดสูง ความดันโลหิตสูง และการสูบบุหรี่ และอาหารปัจจัย (โดยเฉพาะอาหารไขมัน ไขมัน และโซเดียม) แนวคิดปัจจัยเสี่ยง - ว่า อุบัติเฉพาะ วิถีชีวิต และเงื่อนไขทางสังคมเกี่ยวข้องกับความเสี่ยงเพิ่มขึ้นสำหรับโรค - พัฒนาจากระบาดวิทยาผิว CVD (3, 4) นอกจากหลักปัจจัยเสี่ยง (เช่น ความดันโลหิตสูง ไขมันในเลือดสูง และสูบบุหรี่), ปัจจัยสำคัญอื่น ๆ ที่มีสถานะประชากร โรคอ้วน และสาเหตุทางกายภาพ (7) โดดเด่นความแตกต่างของภูมิภาคถูกตั้งข้อสังเกตโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งสำหรับการตายโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง ด้วยราคาสูงสุดที่พบในทางตะวันออกเฉียงใต้สหรัฐอเมริกา (1) Cross-national และวัฒนธรรมศึกษาเน้นความสำคัญของปัจจัยทางสังคม วัฒนธรรม และสิ่งแวดล้อมในการพัฒนาของผิว CVDโรคหัวใจและโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง หลักสองสาเหตุของการตายที่เกี่ยวข้องกับผิว CVD มีอิทธิพลไม่ระดับเดียวกัน โดยปัจจัยเสี่ยงต่อการรับรู้ ตัวอย่าง ไขมันในเลือดสูงเป็นปัจจัยเสี่ยงสำคัญสำหรับโรค และความดันโลหิตสูงเป็นปัจจัยเสี่ยงสำคัญสำหรับโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง กิจกรรมทางกายภาพ ยุติการสูบบุหรี่ และ อาหารเพื่อสุขภาพ ซึ่งสามารถลดความเสี่ยงโรคหัวใจ นอกจากนี้ยังสามารถช่วยลดความเสี่ยงสำหรับโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง (8)ความก้าวหน้าในการป้องกันแทรกแซงการศึกษาต้นในปี 1960 การสร้างว่าการลดปัจจัยเสี่ยงระดับจะช่วยลดความเสี่ยงสำหรับผิว CVD (2-4) ในช่วงทศวรรษ 1970 และทศวรรษ 1980 พร้อมกับการทดลองทางคลินิกมากมายที่เห็นประสิทธิภาพของยาลดความดัน และ ลดไขมัน ชุมชนทดลองพยายามที่จะลดความเสี่ยงในระดับชุมชน (9) งานสาธารณสุขเพื่อลดผิว CVD ได้ฟื้นวิธี "เสี่ยงสูง" - มุ่งคนความเสี่ยงเพิ่มขึ้นสำหรับผิว CVD - และประชากรทั้งวิธี - มุ่งลดความเสี่ยงในชุมชนทั้งหมด (10) แห่งชาติโปรแกรมที่รวมวิธีเสริมเหล่านี้ และการที่มุ่งเน้นไปที่ผู้ให้บริการการดูแลสุขภาพ ผู้ป่วย และประชาชนทั่วไปรวมถึงชาติความดันโลหิตสูงการศึกษาโปรแกรม (11), เริ่มต้นในปี 1972 และชาติไขมันศึกษาโปรแกรม เริ่มต้นในปี 1985 (12) แม้ว่าก่อนหน้านี้ CDC ชุมชนสาธิตโครงการเน้นสุขภาพหัวใจและหลอดเลือด (9), CDC ก่อตั้งของศูนย์ส่งเสริมสุขภาพและป้องกันโรคเรื้อรังใน 1989 กับความสำคัญของการส่งเสริมสุขภาพหัวใจและหลอดเลือดFactors Contributing to the Decline in CVD DeathsReasons for the declines in heart disease and stroke may vary by period and across region or socioeconomic groups (e.g., age, sex, and racial/ethnic groups). Prevention efforts and improvements in early detection, treatment, and care have resulted in a number of beneficial trends (Table 1), which may have contributed to declines in heart disease and stroke. These trends includea decline in cigarette smoking among adults aged greater than or equal to 18 years from approximately 42% in 1965 to 25% in 1995 (13). Substantial public health efforts to reduce tobacco use began soon after recognition of the association between smoking and CVD and between smoking and cancer and the first Surgeon General's report on smoking and health published in 1964.a decrease in mean blood pressure levels in the U.S. population (11,13,14).an increase in the percentage of persons with hypertension who have the condition treated and controlled (11,13,14).a decrease in mean blood cholesterol levels (12-14).changes in the U.S. diet. Data based on surveys of food supply suggest that consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol has decreased since 1909 (15). Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination surveys suggest that decreases in the percentage of calories from dietary fat and the levels of dietary cholesterol coincide with decreases in blood cholesterol levels (16).improvements in medical care, including advances in diagnosing and treating heart disease and stroke, development of effective medications for treatment of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, greater numbers of specialists and health-care providers focusing on CVD, an increase in emergency medical services for heart attack and stroke, and an increase in coronary-care units (13,17). These developments have contributed to lower case-fatality rates, lengthened survival times, and shorter hospital stays for persons with CVD (1,17).Challenges for the 21st CenturyDespite remarkable progress, heart disease and stroke remain leading causes of disability and death. Estimated costs for morbidity and mortality from CVD, including health expenditures and lost productivity, are expected to be $286.5 billion in 1999 (18). In addition, the overall declines in heart disease and stroke mortality mask important differences in rates of decline by race/ethnicity, sex, socioeconomic status, and geographic region. During 1985-1996, for example, heart disease age-adjusted mortality declined 29% among white men, but only 10% among American Indian/ Alaskan Native women (13). Persons of lower socioeconomic status have higher mortality, morbidity, and risk factor levels for heart disease and stroke than persons of higher socioeconomic status (13,19). In addition, the social class gap in heart disease deaths may be increasing as the rates of heart disease decline faster among higher social classes (19). Geographically, declines in heart disease deaths did not occur at the same time for all communities. Areas with poorer socioeconomic profiles were more likely to experience a later onset of the decline of heart disease (19).Public health programs at the state level for heart disease and stroke have been limited. In fiscal year 1999, through a new program, CDC funded 11 states with the highest CVD mortality rates to plan, develop, and implement state-based efforts for CVD prevention. In addition to activities such as surveillance, these programs will emphasize policy and environmental interventions, both social and physical, aimed at sustaining positive health behavior change.
Although many trends have been positive, trends for some important indicators have not improved substantially, have leveled off, or are reversing. For example, approximately 70% of persons with hypertension do not have the condition controlled at levels below 140/90 mm Hg, and death rates for stroke have not declined in recent years (1,11,13). Heart failure has emerged as a health concern for older adults (20), and adults who survive a myocardial infarction or other hypertension-related diseases remain at increased risk for heart failure. In addition, the prevalence of obesity has increased among both children and adults in the United States (13).
Major public health challenges for the 21st century include
reducing risk factor levels and preventing the development of adverse risk factors. Continued research is needed to understand the determinants (social, psychological, environmental, physiologic, and genetic) of CVD risk factors.
reducing the racial/ethnic disparities in heart disease and stroke mortality.
increasing the ability to reach underserved groups with appropriate and effective public health messages.
promoting policy and environmental strategies that enhance healthy behavior.
determining the relation between genetics and disease. The associations of genetic variants with CVD, and especially the interplay between genetic and environmental factors, may play increasingly important roles in the nation's efforts to prevent CVD.
identifying new or emerging risk factors and determining their potential for public health intervention. New or emerging risk factors that have been associated with CVD include elevated levels of total homocyst(e)ine, fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein, and infectious agents such as Helicobacter pylori and Chlamydia pneumoniae.
focusing on secondary prevention and disability. An aging U.S. population and an inc
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