These four types of reference groups are shown at the top of Figure 14.1. Advertisers rarely appeal to the desire to avoid or disclaim a group, but they do appeal to the desire to be part of a group. Even appeals to nonconformity are made on the positive note of being different from everyone else, not on the negative note of dissociating oneself from certain groups. Marketers, therefore, tend to focus on positive reference groups; namely membership and aspiration groups.