Over the past two decades a number

Over the past two decades a number of strategies ranging from
national air quality standards to fuel quality standards have been
employed in Australia in order to improve ambient air quality
(Department of Sustainability, Environment,Water, Population and
Communities, 2011; Department of the Environment and Heritage,
2004). In 1998 Australia introduced its first national ambient air
quality standards, termed the “Air NEPM” (DSEWPC, 2009a,b; EPHC,
2012a). The AIR NEPM specifies standards for six ambient air pollutants,
including particulate matter air pollution of less than 10 mm
in diameter (PM10). Further to the Air NEPM, in 2004 the National
Environment Protection Measure, termed the “AIR Toxics NEPM”,
was introduced to monitor the levels of five air toxics (DSEWPC,
2009a,b; EPHC, 2012b). In addition to these standards and measures,
the Australian Government has implemented a number of
strategies to curb vehicle emissions (a major source of ambient
air pollution) and/or to mitigate the adverse health effects of
these emissions (Department of Sustainability, Environment,
Water, Population and Communities, 2011; Department of the
Environment and Heritage, 2004). These strategies outlined in the
State of the Air in Australia 1999e2008 (Department of Sustainability,
Environment, Water, Population and Communities, 2011) include:
(1) The debut of unleaded fuel in 1986 and the subsequent gradual
“retirement” of leaded fuel; (2) The Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000