The methodology that to uses MARKAL

The methodology that to uses MARKAL-based least cost energy system model as an analytical framework. Two main steps are followed to construct this integrated model. Firstly, the energy system of each country is composed of four modules: energy supply, conversion and process technology, service energy demand and gases and pollutant emissions.
The renew-able energy sources of supply consists of the existing energy resources and reserves in each country, whereas hydro power, wind, solar, geothermal, biomass (e.g., fuel woods and agricultural wastes).
The conversion module consists of power generation and transmission systems, oil refinery, natural gas processing (e.g., charcoal production, biogas digesters, and briquette factories). Service energy demand is categorized in to five sectors: agriculture, household, service, industry and transportation.
Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) from energy production, conversion and consumption from the countries, e.g., CH4, CO2 and NOx and local emission(SO2) are considered in the last module. Secondly, infrastructures of the bilateral energy linkages (e.g., power grid transmission lines, natural gas pipeline, and lignite trade linkage) between Thailand and Laos are constructed.
The objective function of the integrated energy system cost is to minimize the sum over both countries and the transmission linkages of the discounted present value of the stream of annual costs incurred in each year.